LiBFiAPY  OF  PRiNGLL  'i 

MAY  I  5  2003   ^  ; 
 —J 


Digitized  by 

the  Internet  Archive 

in  2015 

https://archive.org/details/physicalgeographOOrobi 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

OF  THE 

HOLY  LAND. 


BY 

EDWARD  ROBINSON,  D.D.  LL.D., 

PKOFBSSOR  OF  BIBLICAJL  LITERATURE  IN  THE  UNION  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
NEW  YORK. 


A  SUPPLEMENT 

TO  THE  LATE  AUTHOR'S  BIBLICAL  RESEARCHES  IN  PALESTINE. 


THE  MAPS 

OP  THE  LATER  BIBLICAL  RESEARCHES  WILL  SERVE  FOR  THIS  WORK. 


BOSTON : 

PUBLISHED  BY  CROCKER  AND  BREWSTER, 

51    WASHINGTON  STREET. 

1865. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1865,  by 
CROCKER   &  BREWSTER, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


AIXEOVER  : 
STEREOTYPED  AND  PRINTED 
BY  W.  F.  DRAPER. 


PREFACE. 


The  late  author  of  the  following  work  has  repeatedly  stated,  both 
m  conversation  and  in  writing,  that  he  considered  his  books  of  travel 
as  merely  preparatory  to  a  "  systematic  work  on  the  Physical  and 
Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,"  to  which  he  intended  to 
devote  all  his  remaining  energies.  He  commenced  this  labor  very 
shortly  after  his  first  journey  to  the  East,  the  results  of  which  were 
communicated  in  the  "  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,"  etc.  The 
"  Physical  Geography  of  the  Syrian  Coast,"  which  is  given  to  the 
reader  in  the  Appendix  of  the  present  volume,  formed  the  commence- 
ment of  the  above  work. 

The  author's  second  journey,  the  motives  for  which  are  stated  in 
the  Introduction  to  his  "  Later  Biblical  Researches,"  caused  an  in- 
terruption in  this  labor.  When,  some  years  later,  he  resumed  it,  it 
was  on  an  entirely  different  and  improved  plan,  of  w^hich  he  places 
before  the  reader  an  accurate  statement  in  the  "  Introduction  "  that  fol- 
lows. This  plan  he  regarded  as  the  best  and  most  appropriate  ;  but 
he  had  also  another  more  personal  reason  for  adopting  it.  He  felt 
that,  on  account  of  his  increasing  years,  he  might  perhaps  not  be  per- 
mitted to  finish  the  whole  of  the  great  work  comprised  in  this  design, 
and  that  in  the  case  of  his  being  taken  away,  he  would  rather  leave 
to  others  those  countries  which  he  designates  as  "outlying"  than 


IV  PREFACE. 

those  of  the  "  Central  Hegion,"  which  he  had  made  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century  the  object  of  his  indefatigable  investigations,  and  for  the 
thorough  knowledge  of  which  he  could,  as  it  were,  be  responsible  as 
an  eye-witness. 

This  first  part  he  had  hoped  to  finish.  But  it  was  otherwise  de- 
creed above  ;  and  a  comparatively  small  portion  —  thorough  and  com- 
plete in  itself,  however,  without  a  missing  note,  without  the  omission 
of  a  single  word  to  be  subsequently  inserted  —  is  all  that  is  left  to 
the  world  from  the  hand  of  the  earnest,  faithful  investigator. 

The  Physical  Geography  was  to  be  followed  immediately  by  the 
Historical ;  this  again  by  the  Topographical,  arranged  alphabetically. 
Lebanon  and  Sinai,  similarly  treated,  were  to  have  succeeded,  as  parts 
of  the  Central  Region,  this  main  portion.  Whatever  fragments  and 
sketches  relating  to  this  subject  the  author  has  left,  the  editor  pre- 
fers to  withhold  from  the  public,  rather  than  give  them,  worked  out 
by  another  hand,  in  the  shape  of  patchwork,  as  it  were,  and  there- 
fore so  decidedly  in  contradiction  to  the  author's  peculiar  spirit.  All 
that  she  does  transmit  to  the  world  in  the  following  pages,  will,  she 
trusts,  be  welcome ;  partly  as  a  systematic  presentation  of  the  geo- 
graphical researches  of  the  author  in  the  Holy  Land,  partly  as  a 
Supplement  to  his  former  works. 

The  maps  of  the  Later  Biblical  Researches  will  serve  for  this 
book.  Only  the  author  hiniself  could  have  furnished  before  its  pub- 
lication the  materials  for  such  improvements  as  the  appearance  of 
this  work  may  call  forth. 

Th.  R. 

New  York,  May,  1864. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Palestine  the  central  point  of  Biblical  Geography,  1.  Relations  of  the  He- 
brew people  to  Jehovah,  1,  2.  World-wide  influence,  1,  2.  Position  and  isola- 
tion of  Palestine,  2.  Its  remarkable  feature,  the  great  longitudinal  valley,  2. 
Character  of  its  sides,  2.  Depression,  2.  Assumed  divisions  of  the  region,  3. 
Northern  Syria,  Lebanon,  Palestine  proper,  Sinai,  etc.,  3. 

First  Volume  :  Palestine  with  Lebanon  and  Sinai,  3.  These  regions  visited 
by  the  author,  3.  Second  Volume :  Outlying  Regions,  4.  Xoithem  Syria;  Ar- 
menia, Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Media,  Persia;  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Egypt; 
Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Italy,  4.  Relations  of  these  countries  to  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  4;  and  to  Central  Palestine,  5. 

Sources.  The  Bible,  G.  Its  method,  G.  Works  of  Josephus,  6,  17.  Native 
names  of  places,  a  national  tradition,  7.  Epochs,  7.  First  Epoch :  the  Onomas- 
ticon,  about  A.  D.  330,  8.  Other  early  works,  travels,  etc.,  8,  9.  Second  Epoch : 
the  work  of  Brocardus,  about  A.  D.  1283,  9.  Travels  of  the  next  three  centuries, 
9.  Tlnrd  Epoch :  the  work  of  Quaresmius,  A.  D.  1625,  9.  The  storehouse  of  ec- 
clesiastical tradition,  9.  Travellers  in  the  subsequent  centuries :  Maundrell,  Po- 
cocke,  riasselquist,  10.  In  the  nineteenth  century,  Seetzen,  Burckhardt,  Irby  and 
Mangles,  Russegger,  Schubert,  10.  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  in  1838  and 
1852,  10.  Other  later  travellers,  10.  Fourth  Epoch  :  Ritter's  Comparative  Geogra- 
phy of  Sinai,  Palestine,  and  Syria,  10.  Notices  by  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  wri- 
ters best  in  Reland's  Palaestina,  10,  11.  As  to  the  present  state,  the  author's  o^vn 
personal  observations  a  chief  source,  11. 


PALESTINE. 

Names  :  Palestine,  15.  Canaan,  15.  The  Promised  Land,  16.  The  Holy  Land, 
16.   Other  appellations,  16. 

Boundaries  and  Extent.  Originally  extended  only  to  the  Jordan,  16. 
Southern  boundary,  17.  Western,  the  sea,  17.  Northern,  18.  Eastern,  the  des- 
ert, 17.   Length  and  breadth,  18.   Area,  18. 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  SURFACE.   GENERAL  FEATURES. 

Four  long  parallel  tracts,  two  low,  and  two  elevated,  19.  The  plain  along  the 
coast;  the  Valley  of  Jordan.  Hill-country  on  the  west.  Hill-country  on  the  east,  19. 

SECTION  1. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  HILL-COUNTRY. 

Hebrew  word  signifies  both  mountain  and  hill;  sometimes  used  collectively, 
20. 

I.     MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  JORDAN. 

1.  NORTH  OF  THE  PLAIN  OF  ESDRAXLON. 

Character  of  the  hill-country  in  the  north,  spreads  to  the  sea  at  the  Promonto- 
rium  Album  and  the  Scala  Tyriorum,  20,  21.  Belat  in  Ashur,  a  high  point,  21. 
Wild  district,  21.  Mount  NaphthaU,2A.  Jebel  Jermak,'21.  Hills  and  ridges.  Tell 
Hazur,  Mount  Asamon,  22.  Kurun  Hattin.  wrongly  Mount  of  Beatitudes,  22.  Form, 

22.  Hills  around  Nazareth;  legendary  Mount  of  Precipitation,  23.    Mount  Tabor, 

23.  Appearance,  prospect,  history,  24,  Parallel  ridges  south  of  Tabor,  25.  LiltJe 
Hermon,  Jebel  ed-Duhy,  26.  Mount  Gilboa,  27.  Jebel  Fuku'a,  27.  Mount  Carmel, 
and  connecting  line  of  hills,  28.  Form,  29.  Wady  el-Milh  on  S.  E.,  29.  Fertility 
and  beauty,  29.   Elijah's  sacrifice,  30.   Heathen  altar,  31.   Cells  in  the  rock,  32. 

2.  SOUTH  OF  THE  PLAIN  OF  ESDEAELON. 

Hill-country  interrupted  by  the  plain,  32.  Rises  again  towards  the  south,  32. 
Eastern  line,  from  Gilboa  south,  32.  Western  line,  from  the  plain  south,  33.  Line 
of  lower  hills  on  the  west,  33,  34.  Breadth  of  mountain  region,  34.  Its  steep 
eastern  slope,  34,  35.  Divisions  and  names,  35.  Mountains  of  Samaria,  36. 
Mountains  of  Israel,  36. 

Mountains  of  Ephraim,  36.  Mount  or  Hill  of  Samaria,  36.  Ebal  and  Geri- 
zim,  36-40.  History  and  ruins  of  Gerizim,  36-40.  Mount  Zalmon,  40.  Sheikh 
Salmon  el-Farisy,  40.  3Tount  of  the  AmaleJcites,  41.  Mount  Bethel,  41.  Mount 
Zemaraim,  41.   Hill  of  Gaash,  and  brooks,  41,  42. 

Mountains  of  Judah,  42.  Hill  of  Gibeah,  42.  Mount  of  Gibeon,  Neby  Samwil, 
42.  Mount  of  Olives,  42-44.  Frank  Mountain,  44;  site  of  Beth-haccerem,  44. 
Mount  Perazim,  45.  Mount  west  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  45.  Mount  Ephron,  45, 
46.    Mount  Jearim,  46.   Mount  Seir,  46. 

Hills  near  the  seacoast  of  Judah,  .  Sandhill,  47.  Mount  Baasah,  il.  Mount  of 
Azotus^  47.   Mons  Angaris,  47,  48.   Hill  towards  Hebron,  48. 


CONTENTS. 


VII 


8.    MOUNTAINS  OVERHANaiNQ  THE  GHoR  AND  DEAD  BEA,  ON  THE  WEST. 

Wall  of  cliffs,  etc.,  48.  Kfirn  Sttrtabeh,  48,  49.  Quarantana,  Jebel  Ktiruntul, 
49,  50.  Cliffs  west  of  Dead  Sea,  50.  Mountains  of  Engedi,  50.  Sebbeh,  Masada, 
51.  Mountain  of  Salt,  at  S.  W.  comer  of  Dead.  Sea,  51-53.  Mountain  of  the 
Amorites,  53.   Ascent  of  Akrabbim,  Scorpion  Cliffs,  53,  54. 

II.     MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  JORDAN. 

Jebel  Heish,  ending  at  Tell  el-Feras,  54.  Region  east  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  54. 
Jebel  ed-Derttz  (Druze  Mountain),  Jebel  Ham-an,  54.  Form  and  summits,  55. 
Kuleib  Hauran,  form,  55.  Meaning  of  the  name,  55.  Character  of  the  range,  55, 
56.  Is  the  Mons  Alsadamus  of  the  ancients,  5G.  Bashan,  kingdom  of  Og,  56. 
Mount  of  BasJian,  probably  Hermon,  57.  Jebel  'Ajlun,  the  northern  Mount  Gi- 
lead,  57.  Character,  extent,  elevation,  58.  Table-land  and  valleys,  beauty,  59. 
Southern  "hsdf  Mount  Gilead,"  or  el-Belka,  extent,  59.  Jebel  Jil'ad,  Neby  Osha, 
prospect,  59.  Country  further  south,  59.  Western  slopes  of  the  mountain,  60. 
Elevation,  61.  Level-line  as  seen  from  the  west,  61.  Particular  mountains,  62. 
Moab  and  Sihon,  62.  Reuben  and  Gad,  62.  Plains  of  Moab,  by  Jordan,  62. 
Mount  Abarim,  62.  Mount  Fisgah,  63.  Mount  Nebo,  64.  Mount  of  Peor,  65. 
Ridge  of  Jebel  'Attarus,  with  the  niins  of  Atarotlx,  Kirjathaim,  and  MacJioerus,  66, 
67.  Iron  Mountain,  67.  Mountains  of  Moab,  Jebel  Shihan,  67,  68.  Hill  of  Kerak, 
elevation,  68.  Mountains  of  Bether,  Bithron,  signification,  position  uncertain,  68,  69. 

SECTION  n. 
VALLEYS. 

Different  Hebrew  words  rendered  "valley,"  70.  Bik'ah,  70.  'Emek,  70.  Ifa- 
hal,  71.    Gai,  71.   Valleys  mostly  without  permanent  streams,  72. 

I.    VALLEY  OF  THE  JORDAN,  OR  EL-GHOR. 

Part  of  the  great  longitudinal  valley,  72.  Its  extension  north  and  south,  72. 
Wady  et-Teim,  73. 

Ifame.— The  'Arabah,  73.  •  Plur.  'Arboth,  wastes  or  plains,  74.  The  Aulon,  the 
Ghor,  74. 

General  Features,  —  Basin  or  Plain  of  the  Huleh,  75.  Its  rapid  descent,  75. 
Its  fertility,  75, 76.  Ancient  Names :  Merom,  Ulatha,  76.  From  the  Huleh  to 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  77.  Plain  of  el-Batihah,  77.  Plain  of  Gennesareth,  78. 
Character  of  the  hills  south  of  the  lake,  79.   Mountains  of  'Ajlfin,  etc.,  78.  Val- 


vm 


CONTENTS. 


ley  of  Jezreel  enters,  78.  Hills  and  valleys  south  of  Mount  Gilboa,  78.  Plain  of 
the  Ghor,  78.  Valley  below  Sakut,  79.  Plain  el-Kiirawa,  79.  The  Ghor  contracted 
by  Ktirn  Sflrtabeh,  79.  The  lower  Ghor,  a  desert,  79.  Breadth  at  Jericho,  etc., 
80.  Length,  from  lake  of  Tiberias  to  Dead  Sea,  80.  Depression  and  rapid  slope, 
80. 

Valleys  or  Plains  loithin  the  Ghor —The  Hebrew  word  Kikkar,  '  circuit,'  of 
Jordan,  80.   The  Bik'ah,  plain  or  valley;  e.  g.  of  Lebanon,  of  Jericho,  81.  The 
Ghor  also  an  Emek,  81 ;  e.  g.  valley  by  Beth-Rehob,  of  Succoth,  of  Siddim,  81. 
Valley  of  Achor,  of  Keziz,  82.   The  Ghor  a  Gai;  e.  g.  valley  over  against  Beth- 
\  Peor,  82.   Valley  of  Salt,  82. 

II.     THE  GHOK  :    SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  EAST. 

Two  great  valleys  near  Banias,  83.  Wady  el-'Asal,  84.  Wady  Khiishabeh,  84. 
Wady  Za'areh,  84.  Merj  Yafuny,  and  brook,  85.  Land  and  valley  of  Mizpeh, 
8-5.  "Wady  Semak  and  Wady  Fik,  86.  Valley  of  the  Passengers,  86.  Valley  of 
the  Hieromax,  83.  Brook  by  Raphon,  83.  Wady  Yabis,  Jabesh-Gilead,  86. 
Wady  el-Hemar,  83.  Wady  Mahneh,  Mahanaim,  83.  Wady  'Ajlun,  Bithron, 
87.  Valley  of  the  Jabhok,  87.  Wady  Sha'ib,  Nimrin,  Beth-Nimrah,  87.  Wady 
Hesban,  Heshbon,  87.  Second  valley  over  against  Beth-Peor,  87,  88.  Wady  Zer- 
ka  Ma'in,  CalUrrhoe,  88.  Wady  Mojib,  the  Amon,  88.  Wady  ed-Dera'ah,  88. 
Wady  el-Ahsy,  brook  Zered,  88.  The  valley  in  the  country  of  Moab,  88.  The 
high  plain,  89. 

III.     THE  GHOR  :    SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 

The  Derdarab,  from  Merj  'Ayun,  89.  Wady  Hendaj,  89.  Wady  el-'Amfid, 
89.  Wady  er-Rubudiyeh,  89.  Wady  el-Ham  am,  and  its  caverns,  Beth-Arbel, 
Arbela,  90.  Wady  el-Birch,  90.  Valley  of  Jezreel,  described,  91,  92.  Wady  Ma- 
lih,  92.  Wady  el-Farl'a,  92,  93.  Wady  Fflsail,  Phasaelis,  93.  Wady  el-'Aujeh, 
Wady  en-Nawa'imeh,  and  its  upper  branches,  94.  Wady  Kelt,  its  heads,  94.  Is 
probably  *  the  river,'  also  *  the  water  of  Jericho,'  94.  Probably  also  the  brook 
Cherith,  94,  95.  Valley  of  Zeboim,  96,  The  brook  Kidron  described,  96,  97. 
TJie  valley  of  Einnom,  described,  98-100.  Tophet,  100.  Gihon,  fountain,  brook, 
100,  101.  Valley  of  Shaveh,  the  King's  dale,  101,  102.  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
102.  Valley  of  Vision,  Jerusalem,  103.  The  river  of  the  Wildermess,  103.  Val- 
ley of  Berachah,  103.   Deep  valleys  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  104. 

IV.     VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 

General  character,  104.  Wady  el-'Ayun,  or  el-'Azziyeh,  104,  105.  Wady  Ha- 
mul,  105.  Wady  el-Ktim,  and  fortress  Kurein,  105.  Wady  Sha'ab,  105.  Wady 
'Abilin,  or  valley  of  Jiphthah-el,  106,  107.   Wady  Bedawiyeh,  or  Wady  Melik, 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


107.  *  River '  Kishon,  107.  Wady  Wesa,  or  Wady  Abu  Nar,  107.  Wady  Mus- 
8in,  108.  Wady  Sha'ir,  from  Nabulus,  108,  109.  Valleys  next  south,  109.  Wady 
'Azzuu,  by  Antipatris,  109.  "Wady  Kanah,  river  Kdnah,  109,  110.  Wady  Bir 
Jcnab,  or  Wady  Eibah,  110.  Wady  Belat,  or  Wady  Ktirawa,  110,  111.  Brooks 
of  Gaash,  111.  Wady  Ludd,  or  Wady  Muzeiri'ah,  111,  112.  Wady  from  Ram 
Allah,  112.  Wady  'Atallah,  112.  Wady  'Aly,  112.  Valley  of  Ajalon,  112,  113. 
Valley  ox  plain  of  Ono,  113.  Valley  of  Craftsmen,  113,  Nahr  Rubin  at  Jdbneh, 
113.  Wady  Surar,  114.  Wady  Isma'il,  114,  Wady  Beit  Hamna,  114.  Wady  el- 
Werd,  Wady  Ahmed,  Wady  Bittir,  115,  Wady  Ghurab,  115.  Valley  by  Glbeon, 
115,  116.  Valley  of  Bephaim  or  the  Giants,  116.  Valley  of  SoreTc,  116.  Wady 
es-Sumt,  116,  117;  formed  by  Wady  el-MiisttiT  and  Wady  es-Stir,  117;  is  the  val- 
ley of  Elah,  117.  Wady  Simsim,  made  from  Wady  Feranj  and  Wady  el-Ha- 
py,  118.  Valley  of  Zephathah,  118.  Place  where  Philip  baptized  the  eunuch,  119. 
Wady  esh-Sheri'ah,  from  Beersheba,  119,  120.  Made  from  Wady  'Ar'arah  and 
Wady  el-Khulil,  120.  Vale  of  Hebron,  120.  Brook  of  Eshcol,  120,  121.  The 
brook  Besor,  Ziklag,  121,  122.  Valleys  south  of  Beersheba,  valley  of  Gerar,  123. 
Wady  el-'Arish,  river  or  torrent  of  Egypt,  123,  124.  Note.  Valley  of  Baca, 
symbolical,  124. 


SECTION  m. 
PLAINS. 

I.     PLAINS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 

Southern  end  of  the  Phenician  plains,  125.  Plain  of  'Akka,  125.  Plain  south 
of  Carmel,  or  plain  of  Sharon,  126.  Plain  of  Ono,  127.  Plain  south  of  Lydda 
and  Joppa,  the  Sephela,  127.   Daroma,  '  the  south,'  128. 

II.     PLAINS  IN  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR. 

Plain  of  Asor,  Hazor,  129.  Parallel  plains,  130.  Plain  of  Eamah,  130. 
Plain  of  el-Buttauf,  or  plain  of  Zebulun,  130,  131.  Plain  of  Esdraelon,  form,  ex- 
tent, 131,  132.  Three  arms  or  branches  towards  the  east,  132.  Names  in  Scrip- 
ture, etc.,  133.  Scene  of  battles,  134.  Plain  of  Dothan,  135.  Plain  near  Sanur, 
135.  Plain  known  as  the  Mixkhna,  136.  Scriptural  notices,  137.  Plain  at  Gibeon, 
137.  Plain  of  Rephaim,  137.  Level  tracts  of  Judah,  138.  'Plains '  put  for  oaks, 
138. 

III.    PLAINS  IN  THE  GH^B. 


Enumeration  and  references,  138,  139. 
2 


X 


CONTENTS. 


IV.     PLAUsS  EAST  OF  THE  GHOR. 

Plain  of  Mizpeh,  139.  Great  plain  of  Hauran,  139,  140.  Plain  of  the  Belka, 
140, 141.   Scriptural  nofices,  141.    Tlie  plain,  142.   Plain  of  Kiriathaim,  142. 


CHAPTER  n. 

WATEKS. 

General  supply  of  water,  143. 

SECTION  I 
RIVERS  AND  MINOR  STREAMS. 
The  Jordan  and  its  tributaries,  the  chief  streams,  144. 

I.     THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 

General  characteristics,  144.  Divisions,  144.  Length,  145.  The  valleys,  what, 
145.   Name,  145.   Etymology,  145. 

Upper  Jordan.  Sources.  Three  main  streams,  146.  The  Hasbany,  146. 
Source,  146.   Bridge,  147.   Its  course  below,  147,  148.    'Ain  Seraiyib,  a  feeder, 

147.  Chasm  and  'Ain  Luweizany,  also  a  feeder,  148.    Tell  el-Eddy,  the  Ledddn, 

148.  Form  of  the  Tell,  149.  Immense  fountains,  149,  150.  Mills,  irrigation,  150. 
Nahr  Bdnids.  The  great  fountain,  150-152.  Ancient  Panium,  151.  Water-course 
of  the  stream,  151,  152.  Junction  of  the  streams,  152,  1-53.  Relative  size,  153. 
Historical  Notices.  Only  two  sources  named  of  old,  153.  The  Hasbany  not  men- 
tioned, 153,  154.  Analogies,  154.  Principle  involved,  154.  From  the  Huleh  to 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  154.  Bridge,155.  Geshur  and  Geshurites,  156.  Rapid  de- 
scent and  foaming  stream,  155,  156.   From  Bethsaida  (Julias),  estuary,  156. 

Middle  Jordan  :  —  Its  issue  from  the  lake,  156.   Many  rocks  and  strong  rap- 
,  ids,  157.   In  August  full  of  low  dams ;  river  easily  crossed,  137.   Entrance  of  the 
Hieromax;  bridge,  158.  Wmdings,  the  Ghor,  158,  159.   Fords,  158, 159.  Course 
belo^v,  159. 

Lower  Jordan.  —  Character  at  Kiim  Siirtabeh  and  below,  159,  160.  Lower 
fords,  160,  161.  Bathing-places  of  pilgrims,  160.  Course  of  the  river  more  on 
the  east,  161. 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


General  Features.  —  Valleij  and  Channel,  161.  Two  terraces,  or  valleys, 
101.  Border  of  trees,  etc.,  161.  Outer  banks,  161,  162.  The  river  winds,  but  not 
its  valley,  102.  Pride  of  Jordan,  162.  Descent  and  -Depression,  amount,  162, 163. 
Overflows  of  Jordan.  The  river  in  spring  runs  with  full  banks,  164,  10-5.  Reasons 
why  there  are  no  floods,  163,  164.  Loneliness  of  Jordan  ;  no  toAvns,  163,  104.  No 
boats,  one  raft,  165.  No  fisheries,  165,  166.  Jordan  as  a  boundary.  Difficult  to 
be  passed,  166.  First  mention,  166.  Country  'beyond  Jordan,'  166,  167.  Recorded 
passages  of  Jordan,  167,  168.  Baptism  of  Jesus  by  John,  168.  Twice  Jesus 
crosses  over,  108.  Explorations  of  Jordan,  168.  Costigan,  169.  Molyneux,  169, 
170.   Lynch,  170,  171. 

II.     THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 

Wady  Za'areh,  171.  Head  branches  of  the  A'waj,  172.  The  Jarmuk  or  Hiero- 
max,  172.  Its  sources  and  head  branches,  173,  174.  Its  western  part,  175.  Hot 
springs,  175,  176.  Confluence  with  Jordan,  170.  The  Jabbok,  ez-Zerka,  170-178. 
Scriptural  notices,  177, 178.  The  Zerka  Ma'in,  178-180.  Hot  springs,  Callirrhoe, 
179,  180.  The  Arno7i,  Nahr  el-M6jib,  180.  North  branch,  the  Waleh,  180.  The 
Mojib  proper,  181,  182.  Scriptural  notices,  182.  Wady  Kerak,  182,  183.  Wady 
el-Ahsy,  or  el-Kurahy,  183 ;  is  the  brook  Zered,  184. 

*  III.     THE  JORDAN  :  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  WEST. 

The  Derdarah,  184.  Brooks,  185.  Nahr  el-Jalud,  185.  'Ain  Jalud,  185.  The 
stream,  185,  186.   Stream'of  Wady  el-Fari'a,  180.    Water  of  Jericho,  186. 

IV.     RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 

General  character,  187.  The  JBelus,  Nahr  Na'raan,  187.  The  Kishon,  Nahr  el- 
Muktttta'  187.  Remote  sources  in  winter,  inundations,  188.  Junction  in  the 
plain,  miriness,  189.  Dry  in  summer,  188, 190.  Permanent  sources,  190.  Estuary 
and  sandbar,  190,  191.  Nahr  Belka,  191.  Nahr  ez-Zerka,  191.  Crocodiles,  191, 
192.  Is  the  Shihor-Libnath  of  Scripture,  192.  Nahr  el-Akhdar,  192.  Nahr  Abu 
Zaburah,  172.  Nahr  Arsdf,  or  Nahr  el-Failak,  192,  193.  Nahr  el-'Aujeh,  193, 194. 
Streams  south  of  Jafa:  Nahr  Rubin,  194.  Wady  at  'Askulan,  194.  Wady  el- 
'Arish,  194.   No  permanent  stream  south  of  the  'Aujeh,  194,  195. 

SECTION  n. 
LAKES. 

The  four  lakes  of  Palestine,  196. 

L  The  Phiala.  — Now  Birket  er-Ram,  situation,  elevation,  196.  Its  basin  or 


xn 


CONTENTS. 


bowl,  extent,  196, 197.  Stagnant  and  slimy  waters,  197.  Wild  fowl,  frogs,  leeches, 
197.    nir.rorical  notices  and  position,  197,  198.    Not  a  source  of  the  Jordan,  198. 

ir.  Lake  of  the  Huleh.  —  Situation  and  form,  198.  Adjacent  marsh,  198. 
Extent,  199.  Not  deep  and  not  navigated,  199.  Is  the  ancient  waters  of  Blerom 
and  lahe  Semechonitis,  199. 

III.  Lake  of  Tiberias. —Form  and  extent,  199.  Depression  about  six 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  199.  Variation  of  level,  200.  The  water  sweet,  200.  Fish 
and  fishing,  200,  201.  A  single  boat,  201.  Character  of  the  shores,  201,  202. 
High  winds  and  tempests,  202.   Volcanic  tract,  202,  203. 

Historical  Notices,  203.  Ancient  names,  203.  Its  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  Saviour,  203.  His  excursions  across  the  lake,  203,  204.  Ancient  naviga- 
tion and  sea  fight,  204.   Ancient  fisheries,  204,  205. 

Hie  Hot  Springs,  205.  Situation,  temperature,  etc.,  205,  20G.  Ancient  notices, 
206. 

IV.  The  Dead  Sea.  —  Its  remarkable  features,  206.  Ancient  names,  207,  208. 
Form  and  Extent,  207.  Lies  in  a  crevasse,  between  parallel  mountains,  207.  The 
ends  rounded,  207.  Peninsular  and  southern  bay,  208.  Length  and  brcadih,  208. 
Depth  and  Depression.  Soundings,  208,  209.  Variation  of  the  surface,  209. 
Level  below  the  Mediterranean,  209.  Results;  depression  of  Dead  Sea,  1316.7 
feet,  209.   Unsuspected  before  1837,  210. 

Views  from  the  Western  Cliffs.  Approach  to  the  Dead  Sea  from  the.  west; 
great  descent,  210.  Cliff  overhanging  'Ain  Jidy;  extensive  prospect,  210,  211. 
Shores  of  the  sea  like  an  estuary,  211.  The  peninsula,  211,  212.  Mountains  on 
the  western  coast,  211.   Kerak,  the  Amon,  etc.,  212. 

Character  of  the  Waters.  General  qualities,  212.  Four  analyses,  212,  213. 
Cause  of  the  excessive  saltness,  214.  Buoyant  power,  215.  Heavy  waves, 
quickly  stilled,  215,  216.  No  trace  of  animal  or  vegetable  life,  216,  217.  Great 
evaporation,  217.  Deposits  of  salt  at  Birket  el-Khiilil,  etc.,  217,  218.  Legendary 
reports,  mostly  without  foundation,  218,  219.  Many  birds  around,  219.  Heat  of 
the  climate  unhealthy,  219,  220. 

Asphaltum.  Ancient  accounts,  220.  Appears  only  occasionally,  as  in  1834  and 
1837,  220,  221.    Rises  from  the  bottom,  221. 

Character  of  the  shores.  Parallel  ranges  of  mountains  enclosing  the  chasm, 
221,222.  Scenery,  222.  Geological  features,  222.  The  strands;  no  passage  in 
some  parts  along  the  water,  222,  223.  Southern  shore,  a  mud  flat,  223.  Northern 
shore,  223.  Belt  between  high  and  low  water-mark,  223.  Minerals  occasionally 
picked  up,  224.  Blocks  of  breccia,  etc.,  224.  Stone  of  Moses,  or  stink-stone,  224. 
Drift-wood,  225. 

The  Peninsula.  Form  and  extent,  225.  Appearance,  elevation,  etc.,  225,  226. 
The  isthmus,  irrigation,  fertihty,  226,  227.  Not  mentioned  by  ancient  writers; 
notices,  227,  228.  A  small  peninsula  in  the  north,  228.  Reputed  islands,  228, 
229. 


.  CONTENTS. 


xm 


The  Ford.  Two  fords  reported,  229,  230.  They  exist  only  where  the  sea  is 
very  low,  230. 

Navioation  and  Exploration.  Hints  of  ancient  navigation  very  slight;  Josc- 
phus,  230.  Edrisi,  231.  Voyage  of  Costigan,  231,  of  Moore  and  Bcke,  231,  232; 
of  Molyneux,  232.   United  States'  Expedition;  its  labors  and  results,  232,  233. 

Destruction  of  Sodom.  The  Dead  Sea  existed  previously,  hut  only  north  of  the 
peninsula,  233,  234.  Yale  of  Siddim,  slime  pits,  235.  Probable  manner  of  the 
catastrophe,  235.   The  fertile  plain  now  submerged  by  the  southern  bay,  235. 

Apples  of  Sodom.   The  'Osher,  Asclepias  gigantea,  236,  237. 

SECTION  m. 
FOUNTAINS. 

Palestine  a  land  of  fountains  as  compared  with  Egypt,  238.  Reports  to  the 
contrary,  238,  239.  Fountains  recorded  in  Scripture,  239-241.  The  word  'Ain 
applied  to  villages,  241.  Thirty  fountains  within  ten  miles  around  Jerusalem,  241, 
242. 

I.  Fountains  in  or  near  the  Western  Plain,  243,  244. 

II.  Fountains  in  the  Hill-Country  West  of  Jordan.  North  of  the  Great  Plain, 
244.  In  and  around  the  same  plain,  245,  240.  South  of  the  Great  Plain,  246.  At 
Nubulus,  247.   Other  fountains,  248.   South  of  Jerusalem,  249.   At  Hebron,  250. 

III.  Fountains  in  or  near  the  Ghor.  West  of  Jordan,  250.  North  of  the  lake 
of  Tiberias,  2.51.  At  et-Tabighah,  251.  'Ain  et-Tin,252.  Round  fountain,  252. 
'Ain  cl-Barideh,  253.  Hot  springs,  253.  From  the  lake  to  Kum  Surtabeh,  253. 
At  Fusail,  254.  'Ain  Duk,  254.  'Ain  es-Sultan,  255.  'Ain  Hajla,  255.  On  the 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  256.   'Ain  Jidy,  257.   Others  further  south,  258. 

East  of  Jordan :  few  fountains  in  the  north,  258.  At  Pella,  259.  Waters  of 
Nimrim,  259.   Fountains  along  the  east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  259,  2G0. 

IV.  Fountains  of  the  Ulll-Countr]/,  East  of  Jordan,  260.  In  the  Lejuh,  2G0, 
261.  West  of  the  Haj  route,  201.  In  the  plain  and  slopes  of  Hauran,  261.  In 
Jebel  'Ajlun,  201,  262.  Around  es-Salt,  262.  At  'Amman  and  in  the  Belka  252, 
263.   At  Kerak,  etc.,  203. 

Warm  and  Mineral  Fountains^  263,  264. 

SECTION  lY. 

WELLS.   CISTERNS.   RESERVOIRS.  AQUEDUCTS. 

I.  Wells,  265.  Wells  of  Abraham,  Beer-sheba,  265.  Wells  of  Isaac,  Reho- 
both,  266,  267.   Jacob's  well,  267-269.   Other  ancient  wells,  269.   Wells  in  the 


XIT 


COITTENTS. 


fields,  or  by  the  roadside,  270.  King  Uzziah's  wells,  270.  Drinking-troughs  for 
cattle,  271.   Pastoral  scenes,  271.   Modes  of  drawing  water,  271,  272. 

II.  Cisterns,  their  frequency,  272.  Usually  hewn  out  in  the  rock ;  form,  272, 
273.  Few  in  the  plains,  273.  Places  where  are  found  ancient  cisterns,  273. 
Around  Hehron,  274,  275.  Between  Jericho  and  Bethel,  275.  Various  places,  275, 
276.  Water  of  cisterns  usually  not  pure,  276.  Cisterns  used  as  dungeons,  276. 
Cisterns  for  storing  grain,  277. 

III.  Reservoirs,  mostly  ancient,  or  pools.  Impurity  of  the  water,  277, 278. 
Pool  at  Hebron,  278.  Pool  at  Gibeon,  279, 280.  Large  ancient  reservoirs  at  Bethel 
and  Ai,  280.  At  various  places,  280,  281.  Solomon's  Pools,  281.  Measurement, 
source  of  supply,  281,  282.  Vaulted  room  under  the  lower  pool,  282,  283.  Object 
of  the  pools,  283,  284. 

IV.  Aqueducts,  modem,  284.  Ancient,  at  Jerusalem,  284.  Aqueduct  from 
Solomon's  Pools  to  the  temple,  285.  Course,  285.  The  channel,  285.  Remains 
of  a  still  earlier  channel,  286,  287. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CLIMATE. 

Prehminary  remarks,  288.   Parallel  climate,  288. 

I.  seasons. 

Only  winter  and  summer,  288.   Duration  of  each,  288. 

Winter  or  Raint  Season.— Its  beginning,  289.  Time  for  ploughing  and 
sowing,  289.  Characteristics  of  the  rainy  season,  289,  290.  Observation  in  1843, 
and  1845,  290.  Snow ;  observations,  290.  Hail,  291.  Frost,  291.  Roads  muddy 
and  slippery,  291. 

Early  and  Latter  Rains. — Scriptural  allusions,  291.  Hebrew  year,  292.  No 
distinct  season;  beginning  and  end  of  the  rainy  season,  292.  Consequences  of 
their  failure,  292. 

Summer  or  the  Dry  Season.  —  Its  variable  beginnings.  From  May  to 
October  no  rain,  characteristics,  293.  Vegetation  withered  and  dry,  293.  All  na- 
ture longs  for  rain,  294. 

Fogs,  not  unfrequent,  294.   Deio,  frequent  and  heavy,  294. 

II.  temperature. 

Causes  which  affect  the  temperature;  differences  of  elevation,  295. 

Western  Hill-Country.   Jerusalem  as  a  summer  residence,  295.    Record  of 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


thermometer,  296-297.   Comparisons,  297.    Other  plains,  further  north,  298. 

Western  Plain.   Higher  temperature ;  thermometer,  299. 

Valley  of  Jordan.  Sunken  valley ;  greater  heat,  299.  Thermometer,  299-300. 
Southern  production,  300. 

Eastern  Hill-Counti'y,  temperature  little  known,  301. 

Times  of  Harvest,  as  marking  temperature,  301.  In  the  Ghor,  301.  In  the 
western  plain,  301.  At  Hebron,  Jerusalem,  etc.,  302.  Results,  302.  Melons  at 
Tiberias,  302. 

III.  WINDS. 

Only  four  winds  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  302.  These  to  be  taken  with  latitude, 
303. 

Winds  of  the  Rainy  Season.  The  rain  wind  is  from  the  S.  "W.  or  W.  S.  "W.,  303. 
The  east  wind  the  next  most  frequent;  brings  a  clear  sky,  303.  Other  winds  of 
winter  variable,  304. 

Winds  of  Summer.  The  most  prevalent  is  from  the  N.  "W.  quarter,  cool  and 
pleasant,  304,  South  wind  or  Sirocco  (east  wind),  disagreeable,  305.  Character- 
istics, 305.  Duration,  305.  Sirocco  from  the  S.  E.,  305;  from  the  S.W.,  306,  307. 
Is  probably  east  wind  of  Scripture,  307.    Other  summer  winds  variable,  307. 

IV.     PURITY  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

Summer  sun  and  sky,  307.  Transparency  of  the  air,  distinctness  of  objects,  308. 
Occasional  haziness,  308.  Climate  generally  salubrious,  308.  Pestilence,  308. 
In  Jerusalem  what  causes  produce  fever  and  ague,  309,  310. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES. 
Preb'minary  remarks,  311. 

L  General  Limestone  Formation,  311.  The  great  masses  forming  the 
basis  are  Jura  limestone,  312.  West  of  Jordan,  312.  Aroimd  Jerusalem  and 
Bethlehem,  313.   East  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan,  313. 

n.   Sandstone,  Conglomerate,  Marl,  313,  314. 

in.   Volcanic  Tracts.    West  of  the  Ghor,  314.   Extent,  Safed  the  centre, 

315.  Chasm  of  Jordan  below  the  Huleh,  315.  Wady  et-Teim,  316.  Tell  el-Kady, 

316.  Clumps  of  basaltic  rocks,  316.  Extinct  Craters,  near  Safed,  etc.,  317,  318. 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


East  of  the  Ghor.  I^eous  rocks  near  Banias,  Jebel  Heish  and  its  line  of  Tells, 
318.  Between  tlie  Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  318.  Eastern  shore  of  the 
latter  lake,  319. 

Haurdn,  the  plain,  the  Lejah,  and  the  mountains,  319.  The  plain,  320.  The 
Lejah,  321;  description  of,  321,  The  mountain,  volcanic,  with  many  extinct 
craters,  321.  The  eastern  desert  volcanic,  extent,  321.  el-Harrah,  its  character, 
321.  el-Safa,  frightful,  322.  er-Ruhbeh,  an  oasis,  223.  Jebel  'Ajlun  and  el-Belka, 
323.  Lava  and  volcanic  rocks  on  east  shore  of  Dead  Sea,  323.  Great  volcanic 
tract  of  northern  Syria,  324. 

rV.  Earthquakes.  Not  unfrequent,  324.  Imagery  of  Hebrew  poets,  324. 
Four  mentioned  in  Scripture,  324.  Others  recorded,  325.  Many  of  northern 
Syria  did  not  extend  to  Palestine,  326.  Earthquakes,  of  A.  D.  1170,  1202,  1759, 
1834,  1837,  326.   Jerusalem  comparatively  spared,  327.   Note  of  Editor,  327. 


APPENDIX. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  SYRIAN  COAST. 
Note  by  the  Editor,  332. 

General  features  of  the  Syrian  Coast,  333.  Syria  proper  including  ancient 
Phenicia,  334.  Mountains,  valleys,  plains,  ^25.  Mount  Amanus  and  the  adjacent 
country,  335.  Mount  Casius,  335.  Valley  of  the  Orontes,  337.  Junia,  Lebanon,  338, 
344.  Anti-Lebanon,  345, 346.  Buka'a,  347.  Wady  et-Teim,  348.  East  of  the  moun- 
tains, 349. 

n.  Tracers,  350.  The  Orontes  or  cl-'Asy,  351.  The  Leontes  or  Litany,  354.  No 
streams  of  importance  north  of  Orontes,  358.  Nahr  el-Kebir,  358.  Nahr  el-'Arus, 
the  Sabbath  river,  359.  The  Adonis,  or  Nahr  Ibrahim,  360.  The  Lycus  or  Nahr 
el-Kelb,  360.  The  Tamyras  (Damouras)  or  Nahr  ed-Damur,  361.  The  Awaly 
(Bostrenus),  361.  The  Barada  (Chrysorrhoas),  or  Amana,  362.  The  Pharpar, 
362.   Fountains,  365,  366. 

in.  Climate,  366.  Rainy  and  dry  seasons,  367-370.  Winds,  370.  Climate  of 
Syria  healthy,  371. 

IV.  Geological  features,  372.  Formation  of  mountains,  373.  Mineral  pro- 
ductions, 374    Mineral  fountains,  376.    Soil,  376. 

V.  Trees  and  plants, Til.  Exuberance  of  Botany,  381.  Beasts,  Birds,  e^c.,381. 
Birds,  383.   Reptiles,  384.   Insects,  385.   Note  of  Author,  386. 


INDEX 


387 


INTRODUCTION.^ 


The  Geography  of  the  Bible  has  its  central  point  in 
Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land.  This  was  the  seat  of  the 
Jewish  nation  and  of  their  history  for  more  than  fifteen 
centuries.  In  accordance  with  Jehovah's  promise  to  Abra- 
ham, He  brought  the  Hebrews  out  of  Egypt,  and  planted 
them  in  the  Land  of  Promise  ;  converting  them  from  a  clus- 
ter of  nomadic  tribes  into  a  nation  of  fixed  abode  and  agri- 
cultural habits.  They  were  Jehovah's  own  chosen  people, 
separated  from  all  other  nations.  He  was  to  them,  in  a 
peculiar  sense,  their  God  and  national  Protector.  His  glory 
was  enthroned  among  them  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
Only  among  that  people  was  the  true  God  known,  while  all 
the  rest  of  the  world  was  shrouded  in  the  darkness  of  idola- 
try. Only  from  that  land  has  gone  forth,  to  other  nations 
and  to  modern  times,  all  the  true  knowledge  which  exists  of 
God,  of  his  Revelation,  of  a  Future  State,  and  of  Man's 
Redemption  through  Jesus  Christ. 

What  a  mighty  influence  for  good  has  thus  proceeded 
from  that  little  territory,  to  afiect  the  opinions  and  destinies 
of  individuals  and  of  the  world,  for  time  and  for  eternity ! 

1  The  Introduction,  as  already  stated  in  the  Preface,  was  intended  for  the  whole 
of  the  great  work  but  a  small  part  of  which  the  late  author  was  allowed  to  finish. 
See  Preface. 


2 


IKTRODUCTION. 


Compared  with  it,  the  splendor  and  learning  and  fame  of 
Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  fade  away ;  and  the  traces  of  their 
influence  upon  the  world  become  as  the  footprints  of  the 
traveller  upon  the  sands  of  the  desert. 

The  land  of  Palestine,  while  it  is  thus  the  central  point 
and  nucleus  of  all  Biblical  Geography,  is  itself  only  the 
middle  portion  of  that  long  and  narrow  tract  which  lies 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  stretches 
continuously  from  Asia  Minor  on  the  north  to  the  Red  Sea 
proper  on  the  south.  The  remarkable  configuration  of  this 
extended  strip  of  territory  binds  its  several  parts  together  as 
one  whole  ;  but  this  whole  tract  is  separated  from  all  other 
countries,  and  almost  isolated,  by  seas  upon  the  west  and 
by  deserts  on  the  east.  Only  at  its  northern  extremity  is  it 
connected  with  the  mountainous  ranges  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  the  region  here  in  question,  is 
the  great  longitudinal  valley  extending  through  nearly  its 
whole  length,  from  Antioch  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  northern 
portion  is  watered  by  the  Orontes,  flowing  north,  which  at 
Antioch  breaks  through  the  western  mountain  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. Then  follows  the  Buka'a,  between  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon,  with  its  stream,  the  Litany,  flowing  south, 
which  forces  a  passage  around  the  southern  end  of  Lebanon 
to  the  sea  near  Tyre.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan  succeeds, 
with  its  river  and  three  lakes,  the  Huleh,  the  lake  of  Tiberias, 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  Between  the  latter  and  'Akabah,  the 
great  valley,  here  known  as  Wady  el-'Arabah,  is  without 
water  ;  but  further  south  it  is  occupied  by  the  eastern  gulf 
of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  'Akabah.  The  sides  of  this 
great  valley  sometimes  rise  to  lofty  mountains,  as  in  Lebanon 
and  Hermon  ;  and  again,  in  some  parts,  for  a  short  distance 
sink  to  plains,  as  at  Hums  and  Bcisan.    On  the  other  hand, 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


the  valley  itself,  along  the  Jordan,  with  its  two  large  lakes, 
is  deeply  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Let  us  now  suppose  this  long  tract  of  territory  divided 
into  four  parts,  by  three  lines,  not  wholly  straight,  drawn 
from  the  coast  towards  the  east.  Let  the  first  begin  on  the 
north  of  the  river  Eleutherus,  now  Nahr  el-Kebir,  and  pass 
along  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon,  through  el-Husn  and 
Hums.  The  second  may  be  drawn  on  the  south  of  Tyre, 
and  through  the  lower  sources  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  south- 
ern base  of  Hermon.  The  third  may  be  carried  from  near 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  Mediterranean  along  at  some 
distance  on  the  south  of  Beersheba  and  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Now,  of  the  four  divisions  thus  formed,  the  northernmost  is 
Northern  Syria,  which  does  not  now  come  further  under 
consideration.  The  second  comprises  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon,  with  Phenicia  on  the  west,  and  Syria  of  Damascus 
on  the  east.  The  third  is  Palestine  proper,  lying  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan,  and  extending  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  ; 
including,  also,  in  the  southeast,  the  lands  of  Moab  and  Am- 
mon.  The  fourth  and  southernmost,  besides  the  desert  and 
Sinai,  takes  in  also  the  land  of  Edom  on  the  east  of  the 
'Arabah. 

The  First  Volume  of  this  work  treats  specially  of  Pales- 
tine, with  the  two  contiguous  divisions,  Lebanon  and  Sinai. 
These  constitute  the  Central  Region.  The  former,  Lebanon, 
is  included  because  it  was  in  great  part  comprised  within 
the  original  boundaries  of  the  twelve  tribes  ;  and  the  latter, 
because  it  was  the  scene  of  the  wanderings  of  Israel,  as  they 
came  up  out  of  Egypt  to  take  possession  of  the  Promised 
Land.  Another  reason  why  such  should  be  the  extent  of 
the  first  volume,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  author  of  this 
work  has  visited  and  traversed  in  various  directions  just 


4 


INTRODUCTION. 


these  three  divisions,  —  this  Central  Region,  —  and  can  there- 
fore to  a  large  extent  speak  of  them  as  an  eye-witness. 

For  the  Second  Volume  there  remain  the  Outlying  Re- 
gions ;  which,  though  extending  around  Palestine  on  almost' 
every  side,  are  yet  separated  from  it  by  intervening  seas,  or 
deserts,  or  mountains.  Beginning  with  Northern  Syria,  we 
find  this  district  connected  towards  the  northeast  with  the 
mountains  which  stretch  -eastward  from  Asia  Minor,  and 
spread  into  the  rugged  country  of  Armenia,  in  whose  re- 
cesses the  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  have  their 
source.  As  these  streams  roll  on  southward  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  they  traverse  and  embrace  the  vast  plains  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, so  intimately  connected  with  the  earliest  and  latest 
history  of  the  Hebrew  nation  ;  the  seats  too  of  the  mighty 
kingdoms  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  Eastward  of  these  plains 
rise  the  chains  of  mountains  which  separate  them  from 
ancient  Media  and  Persia.  Proceeding  from  these  regions 
across  the  Persian  Gulf,  we  reach  Arabia,  stretching  along 
the  Red  Sea,  and  beyond  that  sea,  Ethiopia,  on  the  upper 
Nile,  followed  by  Egypt  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  same 
river.  Again  returning  to  Northern  Syria,  we  find  it  con- 
nected towards  the  northwest  with  the  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor,  followed  in  the  west  by  Greece,  w^ith  its  islands,  and 
Italy. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  in  respect  to  the  countries  lying 
out  of  Palestine,  that  the  Old  Testament  has  to  do  mainly 
with  those  in  the  east  and  south,  including  Egypt ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  tlie  New  Testament  refers  almost  exclusively 
to  those  in  the  west. 

It  is  seen  at  a  glance,  from  tliis  survey,  that  while  Pales- 
tine, the  central  region,  was  in  ancient  times  in  a  manner 
isolated  from  all  other  countries,  it  yet  formed  the  middle 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


point  of  intercourse  and  communication  between  the  most 
populous  and  powerful  nations  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe. 
The  hosts  of  Egypt  swept  over  it  on  their  march  to  oriental 
conquest ;  those  of  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Persia,  in  like 
manner,  overran  it  on  their  way  to  subjugate  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  ;  while  in  later  times  the  Macedonian  conqueror 
took  his  route  across  it  into  the  east,  and  the  Romans  held 
it  as  a  convenient  thoroughfare  to  their  more  distant  oriental 
dominions.  All  this  implies,  not  an  intercourse  of  war 
alone,  but  also  of  commerce  and  the  arts. 

We  may  thus  perceive  the  wisdom  of  the  divine  counsels 
in  planting  in  this  narrow  and  apparently  isolated  land  the 
people  to  whom  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  and  of  the 
gospel  was  to  be  revealed,  in  order  that  they  should  make 
it  known  to  other  nations.  Probably  from  no  other  spot  in 
the  ancient  world  could  this  knowledge  have  been  spread 
abroad,  in  all  directions,  so  widely,  so  constantly,  and  for  so 
long  a  series  of  ages. 


6 


INTRODUCTION. 


SOURCES. 


1.  The  main  source  of  all  Biblical  Geography  is,  of  course, 
The  Bible  itself.  The  outline  must  be  drawn  wholly  from 
the  pages  of  sacred  writ,  and  is  then  to  be  filled  up  by  in- 
formation derived  from  every  quarter  possible. 

The  Bible  does  not  usually  specify  distances,  nor  give 
descriptions  of  places ;  yet,  in  certain  cases,  the  method  of 
enumeration  may  aid  us  to  a  certain  extent.    For  example : 

(a.)  In  the  book  of  Joshua,  xv.-xix.,  the  enumeration  of 
cities  and  towns  allotted  to  the  different  tribes  proceeds  in 
no  definite  order ;  yet  they  are  often  mentioned  in  groups, 
showing  that  they  lay  near  each  other,  but  not  in  what 
direction  from  each  other ;  see  Josh.  xv.  55,  58. 

(h.)  In  naming  places  along  a  journey  or  the  march  of 
an  army,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  they  lie  in  the  order 
specified.  So  the  approach  of  the  Assyrian  host  towards 
Jerusalem,  Isa.  x.  28-32  ;  the  progress  of  Tiglath-pileser, 
2  K.  xiv.  20. 

(c.)  Rarely  a  special  description  is  given;  as  of  Shiloh, 
Judg.  xxi.  19.  By  following  this  description,  Shiloh  (now 
Seilun)  was  first  visited  and  identified  in  1838. 

2.  Next  to  the  Bible,  the  works  of  JosepJius,  the  Jewish 
historian,  are  the  most  important  source  for  the  history  and 
geography  of  his  people.  Not  that  his  accounts  are  always 
fully  reliable ;  yet,  when  ho  speaks  of  places  and  the  dis- 
tances between  them  along  the  great  roads,  we  may  well  give 


SOURCES. 


7 


liim  credit :  for  these  were  matters  of  public  notoriety.  He 
alone  lias  given  a  description  of  tlie  city  of  Jerusalem  as  it 
was  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

3.  The  existence,  at  the  present  day,  of  very  many  ancient 
scriptural  names  of  places,  still  current  among  the  common 
people  of  Palestine,  has  been  a  fertile  and  important  source 
of  information.  This  is  a  purely  native  and  national  tradi- 
tion ;  not  derived  in  any  degree  from  the  influence  of  foreign 
masters  or  convents.  The  affinity  of  the  Hebrew  and  the 
modern  Arabic  has  contributed  greatly  to  J3reserve  the  an- 
cient names.  Indeed,  so  tenacious  is  this  kind  of  tradition, 
that  all  the  efforts  of  the  Greeks  and  "Romans  to  displace  the 
native  appellations  by  others  derived  from  their  own  tongues, 
were  unavailing.  The  sounding  names  Diospolis,  Xicopo- 
lis,  Ptolemais,  and  Antipatris  have  perished  for  centuries ; 
while  the  more  ancient  Lydda  (Ludd),  Emmaus  ('Amwas), 
'Akka,  and  Kefr  Saba,  are  still  current  among  the  people. 
Yet  a  very  few  Greek  names,  thus  imposed,  have  maintained 
themselves ;  as  Neapolis  (Nabulus)  for  Shechem,  Sebaste 
(Sebustieh)  for  Samaria. 

It  was  by  tracing  out  these  scriptural  names,  heard  from 
the  lips  of  the  common  people,  that  most  of  the  ancient 
places  identified  within  the  last  five  and  twenty  years  have 
been  discovered.  Yet  here,  again,  caution  is  necessary. 
The  mere  name  decides  nothing,  unless  the  other  circum- 
stances correspond. 

EPOCHS. 

The  history  of  Sacred  Geography,  from  its  beginning  in 
the  fourth  century  to  the  present  time,  exhibits  four  epochs, 
dividing  it  into  three  unequal  periods.  These  epochs  are 
marked  by  works  on  Palestine,  each  embodying  all  the 


8 


IXTRODUCTIOX. 


knowledge  of  its  time  and  period,  and  thus  serving  to  show 
the  progress  or  decay  of  Biblical  Geography. 

I.  The  first  epoch  is  marked  by  the  Onomasticon  of  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome.  This  is  the  earliest  work  on  Biblical 
Geography.  It  was  written  in  Greek  by  Eusebius,  bishop 
of  Caesarea,  about  A.D.  830  ;  and  was  translated  into  Latin, 
with  a  few  corrections  and  additions,  by  Jerome  the  monk 
of  Bethlehem,  towards  the  close  of  the  same  century.  It  is 
an  alphabetical  list  of  names  of  scriptural  places,  with  a 
brief  notice  appended  to  each  of  its  position,  and  often  of  its 
distance  from  some  other  place.  This  little  work  is  of  high 
importance,  although  the  notices  do  not  always  rest  on 
historical  facts,  and  are  sometimes  colored  by  legendary 
tradition.    Nor  are  the  two  writers  always  of  one  accord. 

The  Onomasticon  is  tlic  work  nearest  to  the  times  of  the 
New  Testament ;  yet  there  intervened  three  centuries  which 
are  wholly  blank.  Nearly  coeval  with  it  was  the  Itinerarium 
Hierosolijmitanum^  or  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  written  in  Latin 
by  a  pilgrim  from  Bourdeaux  in  A.D.  333.  The  part  rela- 
ting to  the  Holy  Land  is  brief,  but  valuable. 

During  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  there  is  no  record 
of  travels  in  Palestine.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh, 
there  is  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  3Iartijr  of  Placentia,  about 
A.D-  600  ;  and  at  the  close  of  tlie  same  century,  about  A.D. 
697,  the  treatise  of  Adamnanus  de  Locis  Sanctis,  being  a 
report  of  the  visit  of  the  French  bishop  Areulfiis  to  the  Holy 
Land.  In  the  eighth  century  followed  the  pilgrimage  of 
jSt.  Willihald  about  A.D.  765  ;  and  in  the  ninth,  the  Itinerary 
of  the  monk  Bernhard  the  Wise,  about  A.D.  870.  These  are 
all  the  travels  in  Palestine  of  which  there  remains  any 
record ;  until  the  arrival  before  Jerusalem  of  the  first  host 
of  the  crusaders,  at  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  in  June, 


SOURCES. 


9 


1099.  But  although  the  Franks  maintained  a  footing  in 
Palestine  (in  'Akka,  at  least),  for  nearly  two  centuries,  until 
1291 ;  yet  the  historians  and  travellers  of  the  times  of  the 
crusades  have  left  comparatively  few  notices  of  importance 
relating  to  the  geography  of  the  land. 

II.  The  Latin  treatise  of  the  monk  Brocardus,  Locorum 
Terrce  Sanctce  Description  written  about  A.D.  1283,  marks 
the  second  epoch  ;  and  gives  us  what  was  known  of  Pales- 
tine by  the  Latin  monks  and  ecclesiastics  at  the  close  of  the 
crusades.  Though  less  brief  than  the  Onomasticon,  it  is  also 
less  full  and  complete  ;  and  serves  to  show,  that,  during  the 
long  interval  of  nine  centuries,  much  had  been  forgotten  by 
the  church  which  still  existed  among  the  common  people. 

The  three  following  centuries  served  to  extend  and  fix  the 
dominion  of  ecclesiastical  tradition.  The  travellers,  whose 
works  have  been  preserved,  and  who  lodged  in  the  convents, 
repeated,  for  the  most  part,  only  what  they  had  learned  from 
the  monks.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
however,  we  have  the  important  Arabic  work  of  Ahulfeda  on 
Syria  ;  and  that  of  the  Jewish  writer  ParcM^  long  a  resident 
in  the  land.  Among  travellers,  the  more  important  names 
are,  Ludolf  of  Sachem^  about  1340  ;  Breydenhach  and  F. 
Fabri,  in  1483  ;  Pierre  Beloii,  in  1546  ;  and  Cotovicus  (Koot- 
wyk),  in  1598. 

III.  The  third  epoch  is  constituted  by  the  work  of  Qua- 
RESMius,  Terrce  Sanctce  Flucidatio,  completed  in  1625,  and 
afterwards  published  in  two  folio  volumes.  Ecclesiastical 
tradition  was  still  in  its  palmy  days ;  and  this  work  affords 
the  best  exposition  of  it.  It  is  interminably  prolix,  and,  so 
far  as  the  true  topography  of  the  land  is  concerned,  is 
indefinite  and  of  little  value. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  have  the 

2 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


valuable  works  of  d^Arvieux  and  Maundrell.  The  monks 
continued  to  be  the  main  source  of  information.  Even  the 
keen-sighted  Maundrell,  though  he  obviously  places  little 
reliance  on  these  accounts,  yet  gives  nothing  better  in  place 
of  them. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  chief  travellers  were  R. 
Pocoche  and  Hasselquist.  The  latter,  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus, 
turned  his  attention  particularly  to  the  Botany  of  the  country. 

The  early  part  of  the  present  century  furnished  several 
travellers  of  the  highest  character,  both  as  observers  and 
narrators  ;  such  were  Seetzen^  1 803-10 ;  Burckhardt,  1809- 
16  ;  Irb?/  and  Mangles^  1817,  1818.  In  recent  years,  a 
more  thorough  exploration  of  the  land  has  been  undertaken 
in  almost  every  direction  ;  and  very  much  of  that  which 
had  been  long  forgotten  has  already  been  recovered.  Rusb- 
egger  in  1836  examined  the  Geology  of  Palestine ;  and 
Sehuhert,  in  1837,  the  Natural  History.  In  1838  and  1852, 
the  author  of  this  work,  with  Eli  Smith,  collected  the  ma- 
terials for  the  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine.  They  were 
followed,  in  various  years,  by  U.  G-.  Schulz  and  W.  M, 
Thomson;  in  1843  by  J.  Wilson;  in  1845  by  T.  Toiler  in 
Jerusalem  ;  and  in  1855  by  J.  L.  Porter  in  Damascus  and 
Hauran.  The  American  Expedition,  in  1848,  made  known 
the  physical  features  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan  ;  and 
gave  rise  also  to  the  able  Geological  Report  of  Palestine 
by  Dr.  H.  J.  Anderson.  In  1852,  Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde 
travelled  throughout  the  countries  west  of  the  Jordan,  to 
obtain  the  materials  for  his  new  Map  of  the  Holy  Land. 

TV.  The  middle  of  the  present  century  may  therefore  be 
regarded  as  a  new  and  fourth  epoch  in  the  liistory  of  Biblical 
Geography.  It  is  distinctly  marked  by  the  great  work  of 
Carl  Ritter,  Vergleichende  Erdkunde  der  Sinai  Halhinsel,  von 


SOURCES. 


11 


Palaestina  und  Syrien  ;  that  is,  "  Comparative  Geography  of 
the  Sinai  Peninsula,  of  Palestine,  and  Syria ;  "  four  vols, 
octavo,  1848-1855.  This  is  a  portion  of  the  author's  larger 
work  on  Comparative  Geography.  In  it,  as  a  vast  storehouse, 
is  brought  together  all  that  relates  to  the  geography  of  Pales- 
tine and  Syria,  gathered  from  the  travellers  and  historians 
of  all  periods  and  countries. 

The  notices  of  Ancient  Palestine  by  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  are  found  best  collected  in  the  still  classic  work  of 
Hadr.  Heland,  Palaestina  ex  monumentis  veteribus  illustrata, 
Traj.  Batav.  1714,  quarto.  This  has  ever  been,  and  yet  re- 
mains, the  standard  classic  work  on  Ancient  Palestine. 

In  respect  to  the  modern  state  of  the  countries  here  treated 
of,  —  the  Central  Region,  —  the  chief  source  of  information 
and  reference  in  this  work  is  naturally  the  author's  own 
published  volumes  upon  the  Holy  Land.  Indeed,  so  far  as 
relates  to  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan,  the  present  volume 
may  be  regarded,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  systematic  pre- 
sentation of  the  author's  own  personal  observations,  made  in 
the  country  itself,  and  more  fully  recorded  from  day  to  day 
in  his  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine. 

Note.  —  The  full  titles  of  all  the  works  referred  to,  and  of  many  others 
on  Palestine,  may  be  seen  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Biblical  Researches. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

OF 

THE     HOLY  LAND. 


PALESTINE 


NAME. 

Palestine,  or  Palesttna,  now  the  most  common  name  for 
the  Holy  Land,  occurs  three  times  in  the  English  version  of 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  is  there  put  for  the  Hebrew  name 
ndbs,  elsewhere  rendered  Philistia.^  As  thus  used,  it  re- 
.  fers  strictly  and  only  to  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  land.  So,  too,  in  the  Greek  form, 
IlaXaLaTLVTj,  it  is  used  by  Joseplms.^  But  both  Josephus  and 
Philo  apply  the  name  to  the  whole  land  of  the  Hebrews  ;  and 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  employed  it  in  the  like  extent.^ 

The  earliest  and  native  name  was  Canaan,  "ji'ss,  Xavadv, 
or  Land  of  Canaan.^  This  word  signifies  "  a  low  tract ;  "  in 
contrast  perhaps  to  d-nx,  Aram,  or  Syria  ;  that  is, "  the  higher 
tracts  "  of  Lebanon  and  Syria.  It  would  therefore  strictly 
apply  only  to  the  plains  along  the  coast ;  and  it  is  so  used 
for  Philistia  and  for  Phenicia.^  But  it  is  also  frequently 
used  as  comprising  the  whole  country  west  of  the  Jordan.^ 

1  Ex.  XV.  14;  Isa.  xiv.  29,  31;  Ps.  Ix.  8,  Ixxxvii.  4,  cviii.  9. 

2  Antiq.,  1.  6.  2;  Ibid.,  2.  15.2. 

8  Joseph.  Antiq.,  8.  10.  3.   Philo,  Opera  (ed.  Mangey),  II.  pp.  20,  106,  457. 
Hdot.,  1.  105.    Strabo,  IG.  4.  18. 
*  Gen.  xii.  5,  xvi.  3;  Ex.  xv.  15;  Judg.  iil.  1. 

5  Philistia,  Zeph.  ii.  5.    Phenicia,  Isa.  xxiii.  11,  in  Hebrew  and  Septuagint. 
Comp.  Obad.  xx. 

6  Gen.  xii.  5;  Num.  xxxiii.  51,  xxxiv.  2;  Josh.  xxi.  2,  xxii.  9;  Acts  xiii.  19. 
Joseph.  Antiq.,  1.  6.  2;  Ibid.,  2.  15.  3. 


4 

16  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 

Palestine  is  known  as  the  Promised  Land,  because  it  was 
promised  of  God  to  Abraham.^ 

It  is  called  the  Hohj  Land,  once  in  Scripture,^  and  now 
commonly  ;  as  having  been,  with  the  Hebrews,  its  inhabi- 
tants, a  peculiar  possession  of  Jehovah,  where  his  glory  was 
revealed  for  ages,  and  where  later  the  Messiah  became  flesh 
and  dwelt  with  men.  For  all  who  hold  to  the  one  only  true 
God  it  is  to  this  day  the  Holy  Land,  as  the  original  seat  and 
source  of  all  true  religion. 

Other  names,  derived  from  the  different  appellations  by 
which  the  inhabitants  were  known,  require  no  illustration. 
Such  are :  Land  of  the  Hebreivs,  of  Lsrael  or  the  Lsraelites,  of 
the  Jews,  etc.  So  too  the  Land  of  Jadah,  or  Jiidea;  which, 
though  strictly  referring  only  to  the  southern  part  of  the  . 
country,  are  sometimes  in  popular  usage  applied  to  the 
whole. 

BOUNDARIES  AND  EXTENT. 

The  country  promised  to  Abraham,  and  described  by 
Moses,  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  and. 
on  the  cast  by  the  Jordan.^  Only  at  a  later  period  the  por- 
tion of  two  and  a  half  tribes  was  assigned  to  them  on  the 
east  of  the  Jordan.  The  northern  boundary,  as  we  shall  see 
hereafter,  included  Phenicia  and  Mount  Lebanon.* 

Of  the  southern  border  we  have  two  specifications,  —  one 
by  Moses,  and  the  other,  as  the  southern  border  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  in  the  division  of  the  land  by  Joshua.^  Accord- 
ing to  these  accounts,  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  land 
was  the  desert  of  Zin,  in  the  'Arabah,  at  the  south  end  of 

1  Gen.  xii.  7,  xiii.  15,  xvii.  8;  Ps.  cv.  9,  IL 

2  Zcch.  il.  12.  ^  3  Num.  xxxiv.  6,  12. 

*  Num.  xxxiv.  7,  8;  comp.  Josh.  xiii.  5.       ^  Num.  xxxiv.  3-5;  Josh,  xv  1-4. 


BOUNDARIES  AND  EXTENT. 


17 


the  Dead  Sea,  adjacent  to  the  border  of  Edom.  The  bound- 
ary line  began  at  the  tongue  or  bay  of  the  sea,  looking  ^^outh- 
ward,  and  passed  up  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim  to  Zin,  and  so 
on  southward  to  Kadesh-Barnea  ;  thence  it  was  carried  by 
Hezron,  Adar,  Karkaa,  and  Azmon,  to  the  brook  or  torrent 
of  Egypt,  and  ended  at  the  Mediterranean.  The  earlier  ac- 
count omits  Hezron  and  Karkaa  ;  and  for  Adar,  it  has  Hazar- 
Addar. 

Of  the  places  here  enumerated,  only  a  few  are  known. 
By  the  "  tongue  "  or  bay  of  the  sea  is  perhaps  to  be  under- 
stood the  shallow  portion  on  the  south  of  the  peninsula. 
Perhaps  the  line  began  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady  el-Ahsy, 
which  appears  to  have  separated  Edom  from  Moab.  The 
ascent  of  Akrabbim  is  probably  the  line  of  cliffs  running 
across  the  'Arabah  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  form- 
ing merely  the  ascent  to  the  higher  level  of  the  great  valley 
further  south. ^  Kadesh  is  to  be  sought  in  the  valley,  on  its 
western  side,  probably  at  'Ain  el-Weibeh,  the  chief  water- 
ing-place of  the  Arabs  iu  the  whole  region. ^  None  of  the 
other  places  towards  the  west  are  known,  until  we  reach 
"  the  brook  or  torrent  of  Egypt,"  near  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  afterwards  the  site  of  liJdno- 
korura,  and  now  called  "Wady  el-'Arish. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  work,  we  assume  as  the 
southern  boundary  the  parallel  of  Lat.  31°  X.  This  is  suf- 
ficiently near,  and  divides  Moab  and  Edom  correctly.  But 
there  must  be  a  slight  curve  towards  the  south  in  order  to 
include  Kadesh. 

The  western  border  is  of  course  the  Mediterranean ;  the 
eastern  is  the  desert. 

1  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  IT.  pp.  116, 120  [II.  pp.  494,  501].  — The  sec- 
ond numbers  refer  to  the  first,  the  first  to  the  second  edition  of  this  work. 

2  Ibid.,  II.  pp.  174,  193  [II.  pp.  582,  GIO]. 


18 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


For  the  northern  houndary,  we  assume  a  line  begmning 
near  the  northern  base  of  the  Promontoriiim  Albimi,  now 
Ras  el-Abyad,  south  of  Tyre,  in  about  Lat.  3o°  10'  X.,  and 
drawn  slightly  north  of  east,  and  curving  so  as  to  take  in 
Kana,  the  fortress  Tibnin,  and  also  Hunm,  until  it  strikes 
near  Dan  and  Banias  at  the  southern  base  of  Hermon,  in 
Lat.  33°  16'  N.  On  this  parallel  the  line  continues  to  the 
eastern  desert.  This  desert  may  be  said  to  constitute  the 
eastern  border  of  Palestine. 

The  length  of  the  territory  thus  included,  is,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  136  minutes  of  latitude  ;  that  is,  136  geograph- 
ical miles,  or  158  English  miles.  The  breadth  is  greatest 
near  Gaza,  in  about  Long.  34°  31'  E.  from  Greenwich  ;  and 
at  the  promontory  of  Carmel,  nearly  in  Long.  34°  58'  E.  It 
may  be  estimated  as  not  far  from  90  degrees  of  longitude  at 
these  points,  —  equal  to  about  seventy-five  geographical  miles, 
or  from  eighty-five  to  ninety  English  miles.  But  if  measured 
by  hours  along  the  roads,  both  the  length  and  breadth  would 
appear  much  greater. 

The  whole  area  of  the  land  of  Palestine,  consequently, 
does  not  vary  greatly  from  twelve  thousand  geographical 
square  miles,  —  about  equal  to  the  area  of  the  two  States  of 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  together.  Of  this  whole  area, 
more  than  one  half,  or  about  seven  thousand  square  miles, 
being  by  far  the  most  important  portion,  lies  on  the  west  of 
the  Jordan. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  SURFACE  — GENERAL  FEATURES. 

The  striking  feature  in  the  aspect  of  the  country,  consists 
in  the  four  long  parallel  tracts  or  strips  of  territory  into 
which  the  land  naturally  divides  itself ;  two  of  them  low,  and 
two  elevated.    They  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  low  plain  along  the  coast,  interrupted  only  at  the 
northern  end  and  at  Carmel.    See  under  Plains. 

II.  The  valley  or  plain  of  the  Jordan,  depressed  in  great 
part  helow  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.    See  Yalleys. 

III.  The  range  of  hill-country  and  mountains  west  of  Jor- 
dan, extending  from  Lebanon  south,  throughout  the  land, 
and  interrupted  only  at  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 

lY.  The  range  of  hill-country  and  mountains  east  of  Jor- 
dan, extending  from  Hermon  south,  throughout  Bashan, 
Gilead,  and  Moab.  East  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the  high 
plateau  spreads  out  into  the  plain  of  Hauran. 

In  describing  more  fully  the  features  of  each  of  the  above 
divisions,  we  begin  always  from  the  north. 


20 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


SECTION  1. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  HILL-COUNTRY. 

The  Hebrew  word  •nn ,  a  mount,  mountain,  is  used  in  a  wider 
sense  than  the  corresponding  English  word.  It  is  applied 
not  only  to  the  loftiest  mountain,  but  also  to  what  in  Eng- 
lish is  simply  a  MIL  It  is  sometimes  properly  so  rendered  in 
the  English  version  ;  as  the  lull  Samaria  ;  and  also,  in  the 
plural,  the  mountains  of  Samaria  would  with  more  propriety 
be  rendered  the  hills  of  Samaria.^  So,  too,  the  singular  is 
often  used  collectively  ;  as  3Iou7it  Ephraim  for  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim.  Mount  Judah  for  the  mountains  or  hill-country  of 
Judah,  and  the  like. 

I.   MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 
1.  North  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 

The  hill-country  between  the  plains  of  the  coast  and  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  connects  with  the  southern  end  of  Leb- 
anon near  Sidon,  and  extends  southward,  at  first  as  a  broad, 
elevated  tract  of  rolling  and  mostly  arable  land,  skirted  on 
the  east  by  the  great  valley,  and  on  the  west  by  the  narrow 
Phenician  plain.  South  of  the  parallel  of  latitude  38°  IG'  N., 
our  northern  boundary  of  Palestine,  it  rises  gradually  and 
becomes  more  rugged.  On  the  east,  it  overlooks  the  Jordan 
valley  by  a  steep  descent.  On  the  west,  it  spreads  itself  out 
in  masses  of  rocky  ridges  and  cliffs,  intersected  by  deep  and 

1 1  Kings  xvi.  24;  Jer.  xxxi.  5. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


21 


wild  valleys  quite  to  the  sea,  between  the  plains  of  Tyre  and 
'Akka.  Here  it  forms  the  promontories  Ras  el-Abyad  and 
Ras  en-Nakurah  ;  the  former  being  the  Promontorium  Album 
of  the  ancients,  and  the  latter  the  Scala  Tyriorum  or  Ladder 
of  Tyre.i 

A  high  point  in  this  district  is  a  lofty  hill  just  west  of  Ra- 
mah  in  Asher,  called  Belat ;  and  having  upon  it  the  columns 
and  ruins  of  a  rude,  antique  temple.  The  view  from  it  is 
extensive  on  every  side,  and  includes  the  whole  coast,  from 
Tyre  on  the  north  to  'Akka  and  Carmel  on  the  south.  It  is 
a  wild  district ;  though  with  much  tillage,  and  more  pastur- 
age. 

More  elevated  is  the  region  lying  west  of  that  part  of  the 
Jordan  which  flows  between  the  lake  Huleh  and  that  of  Tibe- 
rias. Here  are  the  proper  mountains  of  Naphtali ;  though 
the  whole  district,  as  far  north  as  Kedesh,  is  once,  and  but 
once,  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  collectively,  as  Mount  Naph- 
tali? The  town  of  Safed  stands  upon  a  lofty  hill,  and  is  con- 
spicuous from  every  quarter  ;  the  elevation  being,  according 
to  Symonds,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-five 
feet  above  the  sea.  Further  west  is  a  higher  tract  of  moun- 
tains, terminating  towards  the  north  in  a  fine  cliff  or  bluff, 
near  Gaza,  called  Jebel  Jermuk  from  a  village  upon  the  ridge. 
It  is  the  highest  peak  hi  Galilee,  and  rises  not  less  than  a 
thousand  feet  or  more  above  the  level  of  Safed,  or  nearly  four 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  ridge  runs  off  southwest 
for  six  or  eight  miles,  where  it  sinks  into  lower  hills  ;  while 
at  the  same  point  another  elevated  ridge  runs  from  it  west- 
ward, at  an  acute  angle,  and  as  a  high  mountain  skirts  the 

1  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  2.  10.  2.  Comp.  D'Anville's  Map  of  Palestine.  Ritter, 
Th.  XVI.  pp.  809,  813,  814. 

2  Josh.  XX.  7. 


22 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


north  side  of  the  plain  of  Ramah.  As  seen  from  the  south, 
these  mountains  appear  quite  lofty,  and  are,  indeed,  the 
highest  in  Galilee. ^  The  hill-country,  which  here  skirts  the 
plain  of  'Akka,  is  high,  though  mostly  arable. 

South  of  the  plain  of  Ramah,  a  lower  and  narrow  ridge 
separates  it  from  another  plain.  On  this  ridge  is  Tell  Hazur, 
a  high  point  with  no  trace  of  ruins.^  Beyond  the  second 
plain  a  broad  ridge,  or  rather  double  range  of  elevated  hills, 
separates  it  from  the  beautiful  plain  of  Zebulun,  now  called 
el-Buttauf.  This  range  of  hills  is  probably  the  mountain 
Asamon  of  Josephus,  not  far  from  Sepphoris.^  From  this 
plain  southward  the  country  is  rolling,  with  some  elevated 
tracts,  like  the  hill  or  ridge  above  Nazareth,  the  Wely  on 
which  is  everywhere  conspicuous. 

Eastward  from  the  plain  el-Buttauf,  and  situated  in  a  lower 
plain,  is  the  village  of  Hattin  ;  above  which,  on  the  south, 
Kiirun  Hattin,  Miorns  of  Hattm,'  known  in  Latin  tradition 
as  the  Mount  of  the  Beatitudes^  where  our  Lord  is  said  to  have 
delivered  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  This  tradition,  however, 
cannot  be  traced  back  beyond  the  age  of  the  crusades  ;  and 
the  Greek  church  does  not  acknowledge  it.^  The  spot  was 
signalized,  in  1187,  by  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  host  of 
the  Franks  by  Saladin.^  The  singular  character  of  the  hill 
may  have  given  rise  to  the  tradition.  As  seen  from  the  high 
southern  plain,  it  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length  from 
east  to  west,  with  a  higher  point  at  each  end  ;  but  is  nowhere 
more  than  some  sixty  feet  above  the  plain.  On  reaching  the 
top,  however,  it  is  found  to  lie  along  the  very  border  of  the 

1  Lat.  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  72-77.  2  ibid.,  p.  8L 

3  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  2.  18.  11. 

4  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  371  [HL  p.  238]. 

*  See  the  account  in  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  372  sq.  [HI.  p.  240  sq.]. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


23 


southern  plain,  where  this  sinks  down  at  once  by  a  precipi- 
tous offset  to  the  lower  plain  of  Hattm.  From  this  latter  the 
northern  side  of  the  Tell  rises,  very  steeply,  not  much  less 
than  four  hundred  feet.^ 

The  hills  and  rolling  country  bordering  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon  on  the  north,  sink  down  on  its  western  quarter, 
gradually,  and  run  out  as  low  ridges  and  disappear  in  the 
plain.  Further  east,  around  Xazareth,  the  hills  are  higher. 
That  on  the  west  of  Nazareth  rises  to  the  height  of  about 
sixteen  hundred  feet,  and  affords  one  of  the  finest  views  in  all 
Palestine.^  Those  skirting  the  plain  are  also  high  and  pre- 
cipitous. One  of  them,  a  precipice  of  rock  overlooking  the 
plain,  is  called  by  the  Latins  the  Mount  of  Precipitation^  as 
being  the  supposed  spot  where  the  people  of  Nazareth  were 
about  to  cast  our  Lord  down  "  from  the  brow  of  the  hill 
whereon  their  city  was  built."  A  more  clumsy  legend 
hardly  exists,  among  all  those  which  have  been  fastened  on 
the  Holy  Land.  It  does  not  reach  back  beyond  the  time  of 
the  crusades ;  and  the  spot  itself  is  some  two  miles  distant, 
south  by  east,  from  Nazareth.^ 

Nearly  S.  E.  by  E.  from  Nazareth,  at  the  southeastern 
corner  of  these  higher  hills,  but  isolated  from  them,  and 
jutting  out  into  the  northeastern  arm  of  the  great  plain, 
which  sweeps  around  it  in  the  south  and  east,  rises  gracefully 
the  Mount  Tabor  of  scriptural  history,  the  Itahyrion  or 
Atahyrion  of  the  Septuagint  and  Greek  writers.^  Its  name 
among  the  Arabs  is  Jebel  et-Tur.    It  is  a  beautiful  moun- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  370  [III.  p.  238]. 

2  See  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  336  [III.  p.  189]. 

3  Luke  iv.  28-30.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  338  [III.  p.  187]. 

*  Sept.,  Hos.  V.  1  'iTa^vpiov,  comp.  Pierson's  Comm.  in  loc.  Onomast.,  Article 
Itahyrion.   Polyb.  5.  70.  6.  'Ara^vpiov. 


24 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


tain,  wholly  of  limestone,  standing  out  prominently  •upon 
its  plain  ;  the  latter  being  strictly  table-land,  several  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  As  seen 
from  the  southwest,  the  mountain  appears  like  the  segment 
of  a  sphere  ;  looking  at  it  from  the  W.  X.  W.,  the  form 
inclines  more  to  the  truncated  cone.  A  low  ridge  connects 
it  in  the  W.  N.  W.  with  the  adjacent  hills  ;  and  from  this 
ridge  ascends  the  ancient  and  still  usual  road  to  the  summit. 
This  is  the  most  feasible  path,  steps  being  in  some  places 
cut  in  the  rock  ;  yet  there  is  no  part  of  the  mountain  where 
it  could  not  easily  be  ascended  on  foot,  and  in  most  places, 
also,  without  much  difficulty,  on  horseback.^ 

There  is  good  soil  on  the  sides  of  the  mountain  all  the 
way  up,  and  grass  grows  everywhere  luxuriantly.  The 
sides  are  mostly  clothed  with  bushes  and  orchards  of  oak 
trees  (ilex  and  cegilops)^  with  also  occasionally  the  Butm 
(jnstacia  terebinthvs),  like  the  glades  of  a  forest,  presenting 
a  beautiful  appearance  and  fine  shade.  The  top  of  the 
mountain  now  consists  of  a  little  oblong  plain  or  basin,  ex- 
tending from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  with  ledges  of  rock  on  each 
side.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the  site  of  a  city,  Tabor; 
remains  of  which,  as  also  of  fortifications  out  of  different 
periods,  are  still  visible.  The  height  of  Tabor  is  given  at 
eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  above  the  sea,  or  about 
thirteen  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  general  level  of 
the  plain. 

I  The  view  from  Tabor  is  extensive  and  beautiful.  In  the 
southwest  and  west  are  seen  the  great  plain  and  Carmel, 
the  hills  around  Nazareth,  and  portions  of  the  Mediterranean 
more  to  the  right.    In  the  north  and  northeast  are  Safed 

1  See  generally  the  description  in  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  3-51  sq.  [HL  p. 
210  sq.J. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


25 


and  tlie  mountains  of  Naphtali,  with  Hormon  and  its  icy 
crown  beyond,  while  near  at  hand  is  traced  the  outline  of 
the  deep  basin  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  in  which  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  lake  itself  is  visible.  Beyond  the  lake  the  eye 
takes  in  the  table-lands  of  Jaulan  and  Hauran  ;  and  further 
south,  beyond  the  Jordan,  the  higher  mountains  of  Bashan 
and  Gilead.  Towards  the  south,  the  view  is  mostly  shut  in 
by  the  ridges  of  Little  Hermon  and  Gilboa.  As  seen  from 
Tabor,  Mount  Gilboa  lies  to  the  left  of  the  Little  Hermon, 
and  appears  somewhat  higher. 

Mount  Tabor  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  first  as  on  the  border  of  Issachar  and  Zebulun,  and 
then  as  the  place  where  Deborah  and  Barak  gathered  the 
women  of  Israel  before  their  great  battle  with  Sisera.^  The 
Psalmist  exclaims :  "  Tabor  and  Hermon  shall  rejoice  in 
thy  name ;  "  selecting  these  two  as  the  representatives  of  all 
the  mountains  of  Palestine  and  its  borders,  —  the  former  as 
the  most  graceful,  and  the  latter  as  the  loftiest.^  There 
was  also  in  those  days  a  city  of  the  same  name  upon  the 
summit,  which  belonged  to  Zebulun,  but  was  assigned  to 
the  Levites.^  Xo  mention  is  made  of  Tabor  in  the  New 
Testament. 

The  historian  Polybius  relates,  that,  about  218  B.  C.,  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  of  Syria  "  came  to  Atabyrion,  a  place 
lying  on  a  breast-formed  height,  having  an  ascent  of  more 
than  fifteen  stadia ;  and  by  stratagem  he  got  possession  of 
the  city,  which  he  fortified.*    According  to  Josephus,  a 

1  Josli.  xix.  22;  comp.  vs.  12;  Judg.  iv.  6,  xii.  14.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  5.  1.  22. 
Ibid.,  5.  5.  3. 

2  Ps.  Ixxxix.  12;  corap.  Jer.  xliv.  18;  IIos.  v.  1, 

3  1  Chron.  vi.  77.   Perhaps  the  city  is  referred  to  in  Josh.  xix.  22. 

4  Polyb.,  5.  70.  6. 

4 


26 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


battle  took  place  at  Mount  Itabyrion,  about  53  B.C.,  between 
the  Romans  under  Gabinius,  and  the  Jews  under  Alex- 
ander, in  which  ten  thousand  of  the  latter  were  slain.^  At 
a  later  period,  Josephus  himself  fortified  Mount  Tabor, 
along  with  several  other  places.^  Still  later,  and  after 
Josephus  had  been  made  prisoner,  a  great  multitude  of  the 
Jews  took  refuge  in  this  fortress ;  against  whom  Vespasian 
sent  Placidus.  By  a  feint  he  drew  off  a  large  number  to 
the  plain  and  cut  off  their  return,  and  thus  compelled  the 
remainder,  who  were  straitened  for  water,  to  surrender.^ 

Tabor  is  often  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  in  the 
fourth  century.  At  that  time  the  legend  had  become  cur- 
rent that  this  mountain  had  been  the  place  of  our  Lord's 
transfiguration.  This  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  a  for- 
tified city  then  occupied  the  summit.  The  testimony  of  the 
Evangelists  also  goes  to  show  that  the  transfiguration  took 
place  whilst  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  were  in  the  region  of 
Cesarea  Philippi.^ 

On  the  eastern  part  of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  rise 
two  parallel  mountain  ridges.  Little  Hermon  and  Gilboa, 
running  from  west  to  east,  and  separating  the  whole  tract 
between  Tabor  and  the  hills  of  Samaria  into  three  parts,  like 
arms,  extending  eastward  from  the  plain.  The  northern 
arm,  between  Tabor  and  Little  Hermon,  sweeps  round  on 
the  east  of  Tabor ;  that  in  the  middle,  between  Little  Her- 
mon and  Gilboa,  is  the  great  valley  of  Jezrcel,  and  sinks 
down  as  a  broad  and  fertile  plain  to  the  Gh3r  or  Jordan 

1  Joseph.  Antiq.,  14.  6.  3.   Bel.  Jud.,  1.  8.  7. 

2  Joseph.  Vita,  §  37.   Bel.  Jud.,  2.  20.  C. 

3  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  1.  8. 

*  Onomast.,  Articles  Thabor,  Itahyrhm,  etc.  Matth.  xvii.  1  sq.;  Mark  ix.  2  sq., 
Luke  ix.  28  sq,  Comp.  Matth.  xvi.  13;  Mark  viii.  27.  See  more  in  Biblical  Re- 
searches, H.  p.  358  [IH.  p.  222]. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


27 


valley  ;  the  southern  one,  between  Gilboa  and  the  hills  of 
Samaria,  slopes  up  gradually  eastward  to  a  considerable 
elevation. 

The  ridge  of  Little  Hermon  begins  at  a  point  north  of 
Zer'in  (Jezreel),  and  rises  rapidly  to  its  highest  elevation  of 
not  far  from  eighteen  hundred  feet,  about  S.  by  TV.  of  Tabor. 
Near  the  summit  is  a  village,  ed-Duhy,  which  now  gives  its 
name  to  the  mountain,  Jebel  ed-Duhy.  The  ridge  soon  sinks 
again  into  a  tract  of  table-land,  which  continues  to  the 
border  of  the  Jordan  valley.  This  Hermon  is  not  mentioned 
in  Scripture  ;  and  the  name  Hermon  is  first  applied  to  it  by 
Jerome,  in  the  fourth  century.^  But  the  towns  of  Shunem 
(Sulam)  on  its  western  end,  and  Endor  on  its  northeastern 
quarter,  belong  to  scriptural  history. 

The  ridge  of  Mount  Gilboa  has  its  beginning  a  little  S.  E. 
from  Zer'in,  and  rises  rapidly  at  ^rst,  and  afterwards  more 
gradually,  till  it  attains  its  highest  elevation  in  its  eastern 
part,  near  the  village  Fuku'a,  from  which  it  is  now  called 
Jebel  Fuku'a.  It  is  higher  than  Little  Hermon,  and  perhaps 
than  Tabor.  A  little  further  south  is  another  village,  now 
Jelbon,  representing  an  ancient  Gilboa,  from  which,  doubt- 
less, came  the  ancient  name  of  the  mountain.  The  general 
course  of  the  ridge  is  E.  by  S.  The  northern  side,  over- 
shadowing the  valley  of  Jezreel,  is  very  steep  and  rocky  ; 
indeed,  little  is  to  be  seen  except  the  bare  wall  of  rock.  Near 
the  Gliur,  this  northern  side  sweeps  round  in  an  arc  of  a 
circle,  and  the  mountain  then  forms  the  western  side  of  the 
Ghor  for  some  distance  south.  The  southern  ridge  of  the 
mountain  rises  quite  gradually,  and  is  everywhere  cultivated 
and  inhabited. 

Mount  Gilboa  is  celebrated  in  Scripture  as  the  scene  of 

1  Hieron.  Opera  (ed.  Martianay),  IV.  ii.  pp.  552,  677. 


28 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  great  battle  between  Israel  under  Saul  and  the  Philis- 
tines, in  which  the  former  were  totally  routed,  and  Saul  and 
his  three  sons  slain.  The  Philistines  pitched  first  at  Shu- 
nem.  on  the  west  end  of  Little  Hermon,  and  Israel  over 
against  them  on  the  western  part  of  Mount  Gilboa  ;  but 
afterwards  they  descended,  the  Philistines  to  Aphek,  and 
Israel  to  the  fountain  in  the  valley.^  A  more  than  usual 
interest  is  given  to  this  battle,  by  the  previous  interview  of 
Saul  with  the  witch  of  En  dor,  on  the  north  side  of  Little 
Hermon ;  and  by  the  touching  lamentation  of  David  over 
Saul  and  Jonathan.^ 

About  W.  by  S.  from  Tabor,  and  in  the  western  quarter 
of  tlie  plain  of  Esdraelon,  rises  the  southern  end  of  Mount 
Carmel.  This  mountain  runs  as  a  long  straight  ridge  of 
compact  limestone,  from  S.  S.  E.  to  N.  N.  W.  about  fifteen 
miles  in  length,  until  it  terminates  as  a  high  promontory  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  forms  the  southern  head- 
land of  the  bay  of  'Akka.  The  ridge  of  Carmel  is  connected 
with  the  northwestern  part  of  the  hill  country  of  Samaria 
by  a  range  of  lower  rounded  hills,  about  ten  miles  in  length, 
running  between  the  two  in  the  same  line  with  the  mountain 
itself,  and  separating  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  from  that  of 
Sharon. 

On  its  northeastern  side  the  mountain  falls  off  steeply,  and 
sometimes  precipitously,  with  little  of  tillage  except  along 
the  foot,  but  sprinkled  over  with  noble  oaks,  and  rich  in 
pasturage.  The  southeastern  line  of  hills  is,  on  this  side, 
naked  of  trees,  but  grassy  ;  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
mountain  itself.  The  long  crest  of  Carmel  is  a  tract  of 
table-land.    Towards  the  S.  W.,  the  side  of  the  mountain 

1  1  Sam.  x^jviii.  4,  xxix.  1,  xxxi.  1-13. 
«  1  Sara,  xxviii.  7-20;  2  Sam.  i.  17-27. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


29 


sinks  down  gradually  into  wooded  hills,  with  well-watered 
valleys,  presenting  to  the  eye  a  district  of  great  beauty,  rich 
in  tillage  and  pasturage,  declining  gently  into  the  southern 
plain  and  the  adjacent  lower  hills.  In  the  different  character 
of  its  two  sides,  Carmel  greatly  resembles  Lebanon  ;  though 
on  a  much  smaller  scale.  Hence  "  the  glory  of  Lebanon," 
and  "  the  excellency  of  Carmel,"  are  fitly  spoken  of  to- 
gether.^ 

The  northwestern  extremity  of  Carmel,  a  bold  and  lofty 
promontory,  rises  imposingly  from  the  sea  to  an  elevation 
of  at  least  five  hundred  feet.^  On  its  top  is  a  celebrated 
convent  of  the  Carmelite  order.  The  crest  of  the  mountain 
rises  gradually  and  evenly  towards  the  S.  S.  E.  for  about 
two  thirds  of  the  whole  length.  Tlie  highest  point  is  a  short 
distance  northwest  of  Esfia,  where  the  elevation  is  estimated 
at  eighteen  hundred  feet.  It  then  sinks  gradually  in  like 
manner  to  the  southeastern  end  ;  having  at  that  point  near 
the  village  el-Mansurah  an  elevation  of  sixteen  hundred  and 
thirty-five  feet. 

At  the  southern  end  of  Carmel,  and  along  its  eastern  base, 
comes  down  a  narrow  valley,  Wady  el-Milh,  which  lies  be- 
tween the  mountain  and  the  lower  rounded  hills,  that  stretch 
off  southeast  as  far  as  Lejjun.  Up  this  valley  lies  the  inland 
road  from  'Akka  to  Ramleh,  on  the  east  of  Carmel ;  and 
by  it  the  French  army  approached  'Akka  in  1799.  A  road 
along  the  shore,  perhaps  more  travelled,  passes  around  the 
promontory  of  Carmel,  between  it  and  the  sea. 

Mount  Carmel  has  its  name  ^  garden^  from  its  fer- 
tility and  beauty ;  as  also  from  its  abundance  of  blossoms. 

1  Isa.  XXXV.  2. 

2  Schubert  gives  six  hundred  and  twenty  feet;  Symonds  only  four  hundred  and 
eighty-nine  feet.  The  mean  is  five  hundred  and  fifty-four  feet. 


30 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Besides  its  oaks  and  other  forest  trees  above,  and  its  olive 
and  other  fruit  trees  farther  down,  the  mountain  is  gay  with 
multitudes  of  flowers,  such  as  hyacinths,  jonquils,  anemones, 
and  many  others.^  In  ancient  times,  also,  the  vine  flourished 
on  its  southern  slopes  ;  as  around  Hebron  and  on  Lebanon. 
Hence  Carmel  is  often  employed  by  the  sacred  writers  as  a 
type  of  beauty.  The  head  of  the  spouse  in  Canticles  is  as 
Carmel ;  and  to  the  renovated  wilderness  is  promised  both 
"  the  glory  of  Lebanon  "  and  "  the  excellency  of  Carmel 
and  Sharon.2  As  such,  too,  Carmel  is  coupled  with  Tabor, 
with  Bashan,  and  with  Lebanon. ^  On  the  other  hand,  the 
withering  of  Carmel  marks  utter  desolation  and  the  judg- 
ments of  God.^  The  prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha  occasionally 
resorted  to  this  mountain  ;  and  here  the  Shunamite  found 
the  latter.^  At  Carmel,  likewise,  took  place  the  miraculous 
sacrifice  of  Elijah  ;  at  which  the  four  hundred  and  fifty 
prophets  of  Baal  were  slain. ^ 

In  respect  to  this  sacrifice,  it  may  be  remembered  that 
the  whole  land  was  now  suffering  in  the  third  year  of 
drought  and  famine ; '  and  that,  of  course,  all  the  streams 
and  fountains  of  the  land  were  dried  up,  except  the  very 
few  which  are  perennial.  The  river  Kishon  was  dry,  as  it 
now  is  almost  every  summer,  above  its  permanent  sources ; 
which  lie  along  the  foot  of  Carmel,  below  the  point  where 
the  river  reaches  that  mountain.    The  direction  of  Elijah 

1  0.  V.  Richter,  p.  65.  Schubert  enumerates  the  names  of  nearly  fifty  species 
of  trees  and  plants,  merely  as  a  specimen  of  what  a  traveller  meets  with  on 
Carmel;  Reise,  HL  iii.  212. 

2  Cant.  vii.  5;  Isa.  xxxv.  2. 

3  Jer.  xlvi.  18;  Mic.  vii.  14;  2  Kings  xix.  23;  Isa.  xxxvii.  24. 
*  Amos  i.  2;  Nahum  i.  4. 

«  1  Kings  xviii.  19,  42;  2  Kings  ii.  25;  Iv.  25. 

6  1  Kings  xviii.  17-46.  ^  1  Kings  xviii.  1,  2. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  TIIE  JORDAN. 


31 


was  to  gather  to  him  all  Israel  unto  Mount  Carmcl  not 
to  the  summit,  where  there  was  no  standing-jDlace  for  such 
a  multitude,  and  no  water  either  for  them  or  for  the  sacri- 
fice.2  All  these  circumstances  go  to  show  that  the  trans- 
action took  place  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  perhaps  at 
some  Tell,  near  the  permanent  fountains  of  t  jo  Kishon.  It 
was  also  at  the  part  of  Carmel  nearest  to  Jczroel ;  and  there- 
fore near  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  mountain.^  After 
the  fire  of  tlie  Lord  had  fallen  upon  Elijah's  offering,  and 
the  priests  of  Baal  had  been  put  to  dcuth,  Elijah  with  his 
servant  went  up  for  the  first  time  to  the  top  of  Carmel.* 
Josephus,  in  giving  an  account  of  the  same  sacrifice  at 
Carmel,  says  nothing  to  imply  that  it  was  offered  upon  the 
summit.^ 

The  New  Testament  contains  no  allusion  to  Mount  Car- 
mel. Among  the  heathen  it  was  in  high  repute,  and  was 
the  seat  of  an  oracle.  Scylax  calls  it  "  a  mountain  sacred  to 
Jupiter  :  "  and  Jamblichus  relates,  that,  because  it  was  more 
sacred  and  inaccessible  than  other  mountains,  Pythagoras 
often  resorted  alone  to  its  temple.^  Tacitus  says,  in  speak- 
ing of  Carmel:  "  Thus  they  call  tho  rjountjin  and  the  god. 
Neither  statue  to  the  god,  nor  temple,  so  the  ancients  have 
handed  downjonly  an  altar  and  worship."^  "    Here  Vespasian 

1 1  Kings  xviii.  19.  2  i  Kings  xviii.  33-35. 

3  1  Kings  xviii.  44-40.  *  \  Kings  xviii.  42. 

*  Joseph.  Antiq.  8.  13.  5,  6.  A  recent  hypothesis  assumes,  as  the  place  of  the 
sacrifice,  the  summit  of  the  southern  point  of  tlie  ridge  of  Carmel,  distant  tv.^o  or 
three  hours  (or  at  least  five  miles)  from  the  permanent  sources  of  the  Kislion. 
One  writer  thinks  the  water  might  have  been  brought  from  a  fountain  tv.  o  or 
three  hundred  feet  below  the  summit ;  but  this  fountain  the  Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson 
afterwards  saw  nearly  dried  up,  during  the  heat  of  an  ordinary  summer. 

6  Reland,  Palaestina,  pp.  329,  432.   Jamblich.,  Vita  Pythag.  c.  3. 

5^  Tacitus,  Hist.  2.  78:  "Vsst  Judneam  inter  Syriamque  Carmdus  ;  ira  vocant 
montem  deumque.  Nec  simulacrum  deo,  aut  templum,  sic  tradiderc  majores: 
aram  tantum  et  reverentiam."   Comp.  Movers,  I.  p.  670. 


32  Pin^SICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


offered  sacrifice  ;  and  the  priests  prophesied  that  he  would 
become  emperor.^  All  this  shows,  tliat  here  was  a  heathen 
altar  and  oracle  ;  and  the  place  of  it  is,  by  all  analogy,  to 
be  souglit  upon  the  promontory  overlooking  tlic  sea. 

In  the  days  of  monkish  asceticism,  Carmel  was  thronged 
with  hermits  dwelling  in  cells  in  the  rocks  ;  partly,  perhaps, 
iiatural,  and  partly  excavated.  Very  many  of  these  cells  are 
yet  to  bo  seen.^ 

2.  South  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 

The  range  of  hill-country  and  mountains  west  of  the 
Jordan,  as  we  have  seen,  is  completely  interrupted  by  the 
great  plain  of  Esdraelon.  This  plain,  in  its  gdiieral  level, 
nowhere  rises  more  than  some  four  hundred  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean.  Through  its  middle  arm,  the  valley  of 
Jezreel  on  the  cast,  and  the  valley  of  the  Kishon  along  the 
base  of  Carmel  in  the  west,  it  thus  affords  an  easy  and  com- 
paratively level  roadway  between  the  Jordan  and  the  bay  of 
'Akka. 

South  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  the  hill-country  rises 
again  gradually  until  around  Hebron  it  reaches  an  elevation 
of  about  two  thousand  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean. South  of  Hebron  it  again  declines,  until  the  hills 
terminate  not  far  from  Tell  'Arad  and  Bcersheba. 

The  eastern  line  of  this  hill-country,  along  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan,  begins  with  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
mountains  of  Gilboa,  which  turns  south  along  that  valley 
for  a  few  miles.  Then  succeeds  a  tract  of  hills  and  broken 
ridges,  ending  in  the  bluff  el-Makhrud,  on  the  north  side  of 

1  Suetonius,  Vcspas.  c.  5:  "Apud  Judscam  Carmeli  Deioraculum  consulcntcra, 
ita  confiimai  vere  sortcs,  ut,  quidquid  cogitarct  volveretque  animo,  quantum  libet 
magnum,  id  esse  provcnturum,  polliccrentur." 

2  O.  V.  liichtcr,  p.  05.   Jac.  dc  Vitr.  Hist.  HicrosoL  p.  1075. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


33 


the  plain  of  Wady  Fari'a.  South  of  that  plain  runs  down 
the  frowning  promontory  of  Kurn  Siirtabeh ;  and  beyond  it  a 
line  of  mountain  wall  skirts  the  valley,  extending  along  the 
Dead  Sea  and  far  beyond.  This  wall  rises  from  one  thousand 
to  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  depressed  valley,  is  every- 
where steep  and  sometimes  precipitous,  and  is  often  cleft  to 
its  base  by  the  deep  valleys  and  gorges  that  issue  from  the 
mountains.  All  is  irregular  and  wild  ;  presenting,  especially 
along  the  Dead  Sea,  scenes  of  savage  grandeur. 

The  western  line  of  the  same  hill-country  begins  near 
Lejjun  and  Um  el-Fahm,  where  the  range  of  hills  coming 
from  Carmel  unites  with  those  of  Samaria.  From  Um  el- 
Fahm  there  is  a  wide  prospect  over  the  western  plain  ;  and 
after  travelling  a  short  distance  southeast,  we  have  views  of 
the  whole  plain  of  Esdraelon.  The  western  line  is  in  gen- 
eral less  distinct  -  and  marked  than  the  eastern  ;  though  in 
some  parts  it  is  equally  high  and  precipitous.  Thus  in  the 
northern  portion  it  is  much  broken,  and  declines  westward 
rapidly  into  a  tract  of  lower  hills.  Indeed,  it  is  not  till  we 
come  opposite  to  Lydda  and  Ramleh  that  we  find  the  steep 
ascent  or  mountain  wall.  Here  the  height  between  the  two 
Beth-horons  is  not  less  than  one  thousand  feet ;  and  the 
same  is  the  case  between  Latron  and  Saris.  South  of  Zorali 
the  steep  wall  mostly  ceases  ;  and  the  hill-country,  as  such, 
terminates  north  of  Beersheba. 

Along  the  whole  western  base  of  the  mountainous  region, 
lies  a  tract  of  lower  hills,  varying  in  breadth,  forming  the 
middle  region  between  the  mountains  and  the  plain,  and 
interrupted  only  occasionally,  as  at  Zorah,  by  a  spur  or 
promontory  from  the  mountains.  This  tract  is,  for  the  most 
part,  a  beautiful  open  country,  consisting  of  low  hills,  usu- 
ally rocky,  separated  by  broad  arable  valleys  mostly  well 

5 


34 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


adapted  for  grain,  as  are  also  many  of  the  swelling  hills. 
The  whole  tract  is  full  of  villages  and  deserted  sites  and 
ruins,  and  there  are  many  olive  groves.  In  some  parts,  as 
towards  the  north,  it  may  be  difficult  to  draw  the  exact  line 
between  the  mountains  and  this  lower  tract ;  but  as  seen, 
for  example,  from  the  tower  of  Ramleh,  the  dark  frowning 
mountains  of  Judah  rise  abruptly  from,  the  tract  of  hills  at 
their  foot. 

The  breadth  of  the  upper  mountainous  region,  from  the 
eastern  to  the  western  brow,  is  some  fifteen  or  twenty  miles. 
It  is  strictly  an  elevated  plateau,  —  a  region  of  irregular 
table-land.  The  surface  is  everywhere  rocky  and  uneven  ; 
sometimes  spreading  into  smaller  plains,  often  rising  into 
mountain  ridges  which  run  in  all  directions  ;  and  in  every 
part  cut  up  by  deep  valleys  and  ravines,  which  cleave  their 
way  to  the  lower  tracts  upon  the  east  and  west,  to  the  Jordan 
or  the  Mediterranean.  The  water  shed  along  this  high  pla- 
teau follows  in  general  the  height  of  land  ;  and  is  in  great 
part  indicated  also  by  the  course  of  the  great  road  from 
Hebron  to  Jerusalem,  Nabulus,  and  Jenin.  Yet,  in  this 
whole  course,  the  heads  of  the  valleys,  which  run  off  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  often  interlap  ;  so  that  sometimes  a  valley 
which  descends  to  the  Jordan  has  its  head  a  mile  or  two 
westward  of  the  beginning  of  other  valleys,  which  run  to  the 
western  sea. 

One  feature  of  this  high  mountain  plateau  has  been  dis- 
closed only  since  the  discovery  of  the  deep  depression  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  Jordan  valley.  That  sea  lies  (in  round  num- 
bers) thirteen  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean.^   The  eastern  brow  of  the  mountain  overhanging  the 

1  More  exactly  thirteen  hundred  and  seventeen  feet,  according  to  the  level  of 
Lynch  and  Dale. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


35 


Dead  Sea,  is  thirteen  hundred  feet  above  it ;  or  ahnost 
precisely  on  the  level  of  the  western  sea.  Jerusalem  is  two 
thousand  six  hundred  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  ;  while 
the  western  mountain  brow  is  two  thousand  feet  above  the 
same.i  Hence,  in  the  slope  from  Jerusalem  to  the  west- 
ern brow,  there  is  a  descent  of  six  hundred  feet ;  while  in 
that  from  Jerusalem  to  the  eastern  brow,  a  distance  not 
much  greater,  the  descent  is  two  thousand  six  hundred  feet ; 
a  difference  of  two  thousand  feet !  This  remarkable  feature 
is  chiefly  conspicuous  south  of  Kurn  Surtabeh.  The  enor- 
mous descent  of  the  eastern  slope  is  very  marked,  as  seen 
from  the  hill  of  Taiyibeh  and  the  Mount  of  Olives ;  and  is 
fully  felt  by  the  traveller  in  passing  from  Hebron  or  Carmel 
of  the  south  to  the  Dead  Sea 

This  whole  tract  of  mountains  south  of  the  great  plain, 
is  spoken  of  in  Scripture  in  two  divisions,  under  names 
drawn  from  the  larger  Hebrew  tribes  which  had  them  in 
possession.  The  northern  portion  are  the  3Iountains  of 
Uj)hraim,  which  in  the  EnglisliYersion  are  referred  to  only 
collectively  as  Mount  Ephraim  ;  ^  the  southern  are  the  Moun- 
tains of  Jadah^  or  collectively  (in  the  EnglisliYersion)  once 
as  the  Mountain  of  Judah^  and  thrice  as  the  Hill-Country  of 
Judah.^  Once  the  two  portions  are  designated  as  the  Moun- 
tains of  Juda\  and  the  Movniains  of  Israel.^  The  line  of 
division  appears  to  have  been  the  border  between  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  which  also  was  later  the  boundary 

1  By  the  same  level,  the  height  of  the  road  below  Saris  is  nineteen  hundred 
and  eighty-nine  feet  above  the  Mediterranean. 

2  Comp.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  490^  501  [11.  pp.  202,  204]. 
8  Josh.  xvii.  15;  Judg.  vii.  24,  ix.  4;  Jer.  1.  19,  etc. 

*  Josh.  xi.  21,  XV.  48;  2  Chron.  xxi.  11,  xxvii.  4.    Coll.  Josh.  xx.  7,  xxi.  11. 
Greek,  fi  hpeiv^  ttjs  'lovSa/a,  Luke  i.  39,  65. 
Josh.  xi.  21. 


36  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


between  the  kingdoms  of  Judali  and  Israel.  It  lay  between 
Bethel  on  the  north,  and  Ramah  and  Beeroth  on  the  south. 
The  following  places  are  said  expressly  to  be  in  Mount 
Ephraim  ;  namely,  Shechem,  Shamir,  Timnath-Serah,  Rama- 
thaim-Zophim,  and  Deborah's  palm-tree  between  Ramah  and 
Bethel.i 

The  Mountains  of  Samaria,  in  the  plural,  are  once  put  by 
.Jeremiah  for  Mount  Ephraim,  which  stands  in  the  next 
verse.    So  also  once  in  Amos.^ 

Twice  in  the  book  of  Joshua  the  Mountains  of  Israel  are 
named,  instead  of  what  is  elsewhere  Mount  Ephraim.^  But 
in  the  prophet  Ezekiel  the  phrase  Mountains  of  Israel  occurs 
often  ;  and  includes  the  mountains  of  both  the  kingdoms 
Judah  and  Israel.* 

From  this  general  description,  we  now  turn  to  enumerate 
the  particular  mountains  named  in  Scripture  in  connection 
with  this  hill-country. 

Mountains  of  Ephraim —  TJie  Mount  or  Hill  of  Samaria, 
in  the  singular,  is  the  fine  mound-like  eminence  on  which 
the  city  of  Samaria  was  built.  It  stands  in  the  midst  of  an 
extensive  basin,  shut  in  all  around  by  higher  hills  and 
ridges.5  The  situation  is  one  of  great  beauty.  The  hill 
itself  and  the  country  around  are  fertile  and  highly  culti- 
vated. 

Mount  Ebal  and  Mount  Gerizim  belong  together,  both  in 

1  Shechem,  Josh.  xx.  7;  1  Kings  xii.  25.  Shamir,  Judg.  x.  1,  2.  Timnath- 
Serah,  Josh.  xix.  50,  xxiv.  30.  Ramathaim-Zophim,  1  Sam.  i.  1.  The  palm  tree, 
Judg.  iv.  5. 

2  Jer.  xxxi.  5,  6;  Amos  iii.  9. 

3  Josh.  xi.  16,  21. 

<  Ez.  xxxvii.  22;  comp.  vi.  2,  xix.  9,  Xxxiv.  13, 14,  xxxix.  2,  4,  etc. 
«  1  Kings  xvi.  24;  Amos  iv.  1,  vi.  1.  See  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  304  [IH. 
p.  138]. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


37 


position  and  in  history.  They  form  the  highest  part  of  the 
mountain  wall  which  skirts  the  long  plain  of  the  Mukhna 
on  the  west.  North  of  the  middle  of  the  plain,  where  this 
wall  is  the  highest,  it  is  cleft  to  the  bottom  by  the  narrow 
valley  running  up  northwest,  in  which  stands  Nabulus,  the 
ancient  Shechem.  The  mountain  on  the  north  is  Ebal ; 
that  on  the  south,  Gerizim.  The  valley  is  not  more  than 
five  or  six  hundred  yards  wide  at  the  bottom ;  and  the 
mountain  brows  are  so  near  together,  that  persons  upon 
them  might  easily  be  heard  form  one  to  the  other  over  the 
deep  valley  below.  The  elevation  of  Gerizim  only  has  been 
measured,  and  amounts  to  two  thousand  six  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  above  the  sea,  or  about  eight  hundred  feet  above 
Nabulus.  As  seen  from  the  east,  Ebal  appears  to  be  a  hun- 
dred feet  or  more  higher,^  —  apparently  the  highest  land  in 
all  Mount  Ephraim. 

Both  Ebal  and  Gerizim  rise  in  steep,  rocky  precipices 
immediately  from  the  narrow  valley.  The  sides  of  both,  as 
seen  from  the  valley,  are  equally  naked  and  sterile  ;  al- 
though some  have  chosen  to  describe  the  side  of  Gerizim  as 
fertile,  and  that  of  Ebal  alone  as  sterile.  The  only  excep- 
tion in  favor  of  Gerizim,  is  a  small  ravine  coming  down 
opposite  the  west  end  of  the  city,  which  is  full  of  fountains, 
fruit  trees,  and  verdure.  In  other  respects,  the  sides  of 
both  mountains,  as  here  seen,  are  desolate,  except  where  a 
few  olive  trees  are  scattered  upon  them.  The  side  of  Ebal, 
along  the  foot,  has  many  ancient  sepulchres  cut  in  the  rock. 
The  modern  name  of  the  southern  mountain  is  Jebel  et-Tur. 

A  walk  of  twenty  minutes  leads  from  the  city  up  along 
the  ravine  to  the  top  of  Gerizim  ;  which  is  found  to  be  a 
tract  of  fertile  table-land  stretching  off  far  to  the  west  and 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  298. 


38 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


southwest.  Twenty  minutes  more  southeast,  along  nearly 
level  ground,  leads  to  the  eastern  brow  (or  angle)  of  the 
mountain,  where  the  ground  is  somewhat  higher,  overlooking 
the  large  plain  below  with  its  smaller  eastern  arm,  and  all 
the  country  in  the  east  and  northeast,  with  Hermon  in  the 
distance.  The  top  of  Ebal  is  here  seen  to  be  of  the  same 
character,  —  an  extensive  tract  of  arable  table-land. 

Before  the  Hebrews  entered  Palestine,  the  Lord  com- 
manded Moses  that  they  should  set  up  on  Mount  Ebal  great 
stones,  plastered  over,  on  which  a  copy  of  the  whole  law 
should  be  inscribed,  and  at  the  same  time  they  should  build 
an  altar  of  whole  stones,  also  on  Ebal,  and  offer  burnt  offer- 
ings and  peace  offerings  in  token  of  rejoicing.  On  the  same 
occasion  the  law  was  to  be  publicly  read  in  the  hearing  of  all 
the  people.  Six  tribes,  Simeon,  Levi,  J udah,  Issachar,  J oseph, 
and  Benjamin,  were  to  stand  on  Gerizim,  to  pronounce 
blessings  on  obedience  ;  and  the  other  six  tribes,  Reuben, 
Gad,  Asher,  Zebulun,  Dan,  and  Naphtali,  were  to  stand  upon 
Ebal,  to  utter  curses  upon  disobedience ;  and  to  these  all 
the  people  were  to  respond,  Amen.^  All  these  solemn  and 
imposing  rites,  including  this  public  recognition  of  the  law 
and  covenant  by  the  whole  people,  were  duly  carried  out 
under  Joshua,  soon  after  the  Hebrews  entered  the  Promised 
Land,  and  immediately  after  the  destruction  of  Ai.^ 

These  mountains  are  not  further  named  in  Scripture  ; 
except  that  Jotham  is  said  to  have  uttered  his  beautiful  par- 
able from  the  top  of  Gerizim.^ 

From  later  history  it  appears,  that  when  the  Jews  returned 
from  exile  under  Zerubbabel,  and  began  to  rebuild  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans,  who  had  been  mostly 

1  Dcut.  xxvii.  4-8,  11-26;  corap.  Deut.  xi.  29. 

2  Josh.  viii.  30-35.  3  judg.  ix.  7. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


39 


brought  into  the  land  by  Esar-haddon,  intermingled  perhaps 
with  some  of  the  lower  class  of  people  that  had  remained  in 
the  land,  proposed  to  aid  the  Jews  in  their  good  work:  "Let 
us  build  with  you,  for  we  seek  your  God,  as  ye  do ;  and  we 
do  sacrifice  unto  him  since  the  days  of  Esar-haddon."  ^  It 
was  the  refusal  of  the  Jews  to  grant  this  request  that  gave 
rise  to  the  subsequent  long-continued  hostility  and  hatred 
between  the  two  races.  About  330  B.C.,  while  Alexander 
the  Great  was  occupied  with  the  siege  of  Tyre,  the  Samari- 
tans obtained  from  him  permission  to  erect  a  temple  of  their 
own  on  Mount  Gerizim,  in  which  an  apostate  Jewish  priest 
was  made  high  priest.^  The  mutual  hatred  continued  to 
increase  ;  each  party  contending  for  the  sanctity  of  their  own 
temple.  Wars  occurred ;  and  the  temple  on  Gerizim  was  at 
length  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus,  about  129  B.C.^  In 
the  times  of  the  New  Testament,  the  national  enmity  had 
not  abated.  "  The  Jews  had  no  dealings  with  the  Samari- 
tans;" and  the  Samaritan  woman  places  before  Jesus  the 
great  question  in  dispute  :  "  Our  fathers  worshipped  in  this 
mountain,  and  ye  say  that  in  Jerusalem  is  the  place  where 
men  ought  to  worship."  *  In  the  subsequent  centuries  the 
Samaritans  made  several  insurrections  against  the  Roman 
power,  until,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  about  A. D.  529,  they 
were  finally  subdued,  and  a  strong  fortress  erected  around  a 
Christian  church  on  Mount  Gerizim.^ 

The  site  of  their  ancient  temple  is  even  now  pointed  out 
and  venerated  by  the  little  remnant  of  Samaritans  that  still 

1  Ezra  iv.  2. 

2  Joseph.  Antiq.,  11.  7.  2.  Comp.  Neh.  xiii.  28.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  289 
[in.  p.  117J. 

3  Joseph.  Antiq.,  13.  9.  1.   Bel.  Jud.,  1.  2.  6. 
*  John  iv.  9,  20. 

«  See  generally,  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  293,  294  [III.  pp.  123-125]. 


40 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


survives  in  Nabulus.  It  is  an  area  or  platform  of  naked 
rock,  even  with  the  ground,  with  slight  traces  of  former 
walls  around  it,  and  is  regarded  by  the  Samaritans  as  their 
holiest  spot,  where  they  always  put  off  their  shoes.  It  is 
their  Kibleh,  the  spot  towards  which  they  always  turn  their 
faces  during  prayer,  wherever  they  may  be.  Three  times  a 
year  they  also  come  up  hither  in  solemn  procession,  to  cele- 
brate the  three  great  Jewish  festivals,  —  the  passover,  pente- 
cost,  and  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 

The  ruins  of  Justinian's  fortress  still  exist  in  great  con- 
fusion ;  exhibiting  the  massive  Roman  workmanship  of  a 
late  age.  Some  have  held  them  to  be  the  remains  of  the 
Samaritan  temple  ;  but  the  Samaritans  themselves  do  not 
acknowledge  them,  and  have  no  respect  for  them. 

Near  by  these  ruins  are  also  the  foundations  and  remains 
of  an  ancient  town  or  village  which  once  occupied  the  sum- 
mit of  Gerizim.i 

From  Mount  Zalmon  Abimelech  and  his  followers 

cut  down  branches,  with  which  to  burn  the  tower  of  She- 
chem.2  This  could  only  be  some  part  of  Gerizim  or  Ebal, 
then  covered  with  wood  ;  since  there  is  no  other  mountain 
near  to  Shechem.  Whether  the  Salmon  of  the  Psalmist  was 
the  same,  is  uncertain. ^ 

At  some  distance  S.  W.  by  S.  from  the  top  of  Gerizim, 
rises  a  conical  summit,  crowned  by  a  Wely,  or  tomb  of  a 
Muslim  saint,  and  hence  called  "  Sheikh  Salmon  el-Farisy." 
Its  elevation,  or  that  of  a  like  neighboring  summit,  is  given 
by  Symonds  at  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-six 
feet.    It  has  not  usually  been  seen  by  travellers.* 


1  See  generally,  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  277,  278  [HL  pp.  99-101]. 

2  Judg.  ix.  48,  49.  ^  Psalm  Ixvlii.  14. 

*  We  twice  saw  it  from  a  distance,  once  from  the  northwest,  and  again  from  the 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JOPwDAN. 


41 


Abdon,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  was  buried  in  the 
Mount  of  the  Amalekites,  at  Pirathon  in  Ephraim,  now  Fer'- 
ata  southwest  of  Nabulus.  The  town  stands  upon  a  Tell, 
which  is  probably  the  mount  in  question.  The  name  is 
perhaps  a  reminiscence  of  Amalekites  who  anciently  dwelt 
there. 1 

The  phrase  Mount  Bethel  can  only  refer  to  the  elevated 
ground  around  the  city  of  Bethel,  especially  on  the  east, 
north,  and  west ;  but  there  is  no  particular  summit  or  hill. 
It  occurs  twice.2 

Mount  Zemaraim  in  Mount  Ephraim,  from  which  Abijah, 
king  of  Judah,  addressed  the  host  of  Israel,  was  doubtless 
near  the  town  Zemaraim,  which  was  iii  Benjamin,  between 
Jericho  and  Bethel.^  The  mountain  probably  was  situated 
southeast  from  Bethel,  near  the  border  between  the  two 
kingdoms.  After  the  defeat  of  Israel,  Abijah  proceeded  to 
take  Bethel  and  Ephraim  (et-Taiyibeh) ,  farther  north. 

The  Hill  of  Gaash,  on  the  north  side  of  which  Joshua  was 
buried,  was  in  the  border  of  his  inheritance  in  Timnath-serah 
(or  Timnath-heres)  in  Mount  Ephraim.*  The  site  and  ruins 
of  Timnath  in  Ephraim  were  discovered  in  1843  by  the  Rev. 
Eli  Smith,  some  distance  northwest  of  Gophna.  Over  against 
them,  on  the  south,  is  a  high  hill ;  in  the  north  side  of  which 
are  excavated  sepulchres,  with  porticos,  of  a  higher  style  of 
architecture  than  is  usual,  except  around  Jerusalem.  This 
is  probably  the  hill  Gaash.^  Elsewhere  the  "  brooks  [valleys] 

southeast.  See  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  135,  296.  Mr.  Wolcott  took  a 
bearing  of  it  (S.  55°  W.)  from  Gerizim.   See  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  74. 

1  Judg.  xii.  15;  comp.  v.  14.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  134. 

2  Josh.  xvi.  1;  1  Sam.  xiii.  2. 

8  2  Chron.  xiii.  4-19;  comp.  Josh,  xviii.  22. 

*  Josh.  xxiv.  30;  Judg.  ii.  9;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  49,  50. 

«  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  pp,  484,  496. 

6 


42 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


of  Gaash"  are  mentioned  ;  referring,  I  presume,  to  the 
deep  valleys  round  about  this  hill,  through  which  the  winter 
torrents  flow  to  Wady  Belat.^ 

Mountains  of  Judah.  —  Thus  far  the  particular  mountains 
described  are  among  the  mountains  of  Ephraim.  Those 
which  follow  belong  to  the  mountains  of  Judah. 

The  Hill  of  Gibeah  is  not  directly  named  in  Scripture, 
though  it  is  referred  to.  Josephus  speaks  of  it  as  a  hill 
(\6(/)09)  thirty  stadia  north  of  Jerusalem.^  It  is  the  present 
Tuleil  el-Ful,  an  isolated  conical  hill,  just  on  the  east  of  the 
great  northern  road,  where  it  forms  a  very  conspicuous 
object.  On  this  hill  the  Gibeonites  hanged  the  seven  sons 
of  Saul  before  the  Lord  ;  and  this  was  followed  by  the  touch- 
ing manifestation  of  maternal  tenderness  by  E-izpah,  the  con- 
cubine of  Saul.2 

Epiphanius  speaks  of  a  mountain  Gahaon  (Gibeon),  as 
being  higher  thaii  the  mount  of  Olives.  This  could  only  be 
the  present  height  of  Neby  Samwil,  near  Gibeon,  the  proba- 
ble site  of  ancient  Mizpeh.  The  ridge  begins  not  far  towards 
the  northeast,  and  rises  rapidly  to  the  high  point  in  question, 
and  then  sinks  off"  gradually  southwest  into  lower  hills.  To 
judge  by  the  eye,  it  is  the  liighest  point  of  land  in  the  whole 
region.  Symonds  gives  its  elevation  at  two  thousand  six 
hundred  and  forty-nine  feet ;  which  is  apparently  too  low, 
being  lower  than  the  mount  of  Olives.* 

The  Mount  of  Olites,  or  Olivet,^  is  several  times  referred 
to,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.    The  present  Ara- 

1  2  Sam.  xxiii.  30;  1  Chron.  xi.  32. 

2  Joseph.  BeL  Jud.,  5.  2.  1. 

3  2  Sam.  xxi.  G,  9,  10.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  §77-579  fH.  pp.  114,  115], 

<  Epiphan.  adv.  Hares,  Lib.  I.  p.  394.  Rcland,  p.  345.   Biblical  Researches,  L 
p.  457  [H.  p.  139]. 
«  See  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  274  sq.  [I.  p.  405  sq.J. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


43 


bic  name  is  Jcbel  ct-Tur.  It  lies  on  the  east  of  Jerusalem, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat.  It  here  forms  the  steep  eastern  side  of  that 
valley ;  and  is  usually  said  to  have  three  summits.  Of  these, 
the  middle  one,  and  apparently  the  highest,  is  directly  op- 
posite the  city,  and  has  been  wrongly  assumed,  by  a  very 
early  tradition,  as  the  place  of  our  Lord's  ascension.  From 
this  spot  one  looks  down  upon  Jerusalem,  as  upon  a  map. 
Further  east  is  a  somewhat  higher  point,  with  a  Muslim 
Wely,  from  which  there  is  a  wido  view  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  the  mountains  beyond.  The  northern 
summit  is  about  a  mile  distant  from  the  middle  one,  is 
nearly  or  quite  as  high,  and  commands  a  similar  view.  The 
ridge  between  the  two  curves  somewhat  eastwards,  leaving 
room  for  the  valley  below  to  expand  a  little  in  this  part. 
On  the  south  of  the  middle  summit,  the  ground  sinks  down 
into  a  lower  ridge,  over  against  the  well  of  Nehemiah,  called 
now  by  Franks  the  mount  of  Offence,  in  allusion  to  the  idol- 
atrous worship  established  by  Solomon  in  the  hill  that  is 
before  [eastward  of]  Jerusalem."  ^  Across  this  part  passes 
the  usual  road  to  Bethany ;  while  another,  more  direct  but 
much  steeper  path,  leads  over  the  middle  summit.  The  ele- 
vation of  the  middle  summit,  near  the  church,  is  given  by 
Schubert  at  two  thousand  seven  hundred .  and  twenty- four 
feet ;  being  four  hundred  and  forty-four  feet  above  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat. 

Over  Mount  Olivet  David  took  his  way  in  his  flight  from 
Absalom. 2  Here  our  Lord  wept  over  Jerusalem.^  Near 
Bethany,  on  its  eastern  slope,  he  ascended  to  heaven,  and 


1 1  Kings  xi.  7,  8. 

*  Lake  xi.  41 ;  comp.  vs.  37. 


2  2  Sara.  XV.  30;  comp.  Zech.  xiv.  4. 


44 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


from  that  spot  the  disciples  returned  to  the  city  across  the 
mount.  1 

Nearly  south  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  distance  of  seven  or 
eight  miles,  and  southeast  from  Bethlehem,  is  seen  the 
Frank  mountain,  so  called  ;  known  among  the  Arabs  as  Je- 
bel  Fureidis.  It  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  landscape,  rising 
steep  and  round,  precisely  like  the  cone  of  a  volcano,  but 
truncated.  The  height  above  the  base  cannot  be  less  than 
from  three  to  four  hundred  feet ;  and  the  base  itself  has  at 
least  an  equal  elevation  above  the  bottom  of  Wady  Urtas  in 
the  southwest.  There  are  traces  of  terraces  around  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  apparently  for  cultivation.  The  top  of  the 
mountain  is  a  circle  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
diameter.  The  whole  of  this  is  enclosed  by  the  ruined  walls 
of  an  ancient  circular  fortress,  built  of  hewn  stones  of  good 
size,  with  four  massive  round  towers,  standing  one  at  each 
of  the  cardinal  points.  The  view  from  the  summit  is  ex- 
tensive towards  the  north,  but  less  so  in  other  directions. 
On  the  east  the  prospect  is  bounded  by  the  mountains  of 
Moab  beyond  the  Dead  Sea ;  but  of  that  sea  itself  only  a 
small  portion  is  visible,  because  of  intervening  mountains.^ 

There  is  no  reference  to  the  Frank  mountain  in  Scripture, 
unless  it  was  perhaps  the  site  of  the  Beth-haccerem  of  Jere- 
miah ;  where  the  children  of  Benjamin  were  to  "  set  up  a  sign 
of  fire,"  while  they  blew  the  trumpet  at  Tekoa.^  Jerome 
says  that  there  was  a  village  Bethacliarma,  situated  on  a 
mountain  between  Tekoa  and  Jerusalem.*  All  this  accords 
well  enough  with  the  position  of  the  Frank  mountain  ;  and 
it  would  be  a  most  fitting  spot  for  a  signal  fire.  More  defi- 
nite, perhaps,  is  the  account  that  here  was  the  site  of  He- 


1  Luke  xxiv.  50,  51 ;  Acts  i.  12. 
'  Jer.  vi.  1;  comp.  Neh.  iii.  14. 


2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  478  [XL  p.  170], 
*  Hieron.,  Comm.  in  Jer.  vi.  1. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  TIIE  JORDAN. 


45 


rodium,  a  city  and  fortress  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  and 
which  also  was  his  place  of  sepulture.^ 

In  or  near  the  valley  of  Rephaim,  southwest  of  Jerusalem, 
at  a  place  called  Baal-perazim,  David  twice  defeated  the 
Philistincs.2  In  allusion  to  these  overthrows,  the  prophet 
Isaiah  speaks  of  a  Mount  Perazim  (a*:f';5,  breaches)^  appar- 
ently near  the  same  place. ^  It  was  very  probably  the  high 
ridge  northwest  of  Bethlehem,  between  Wady  Ahmed  and 
Wady  Bittir ;  which,  as  seen  from  the  north,  appears  quite 
elevated.* 

Other  single  mountains,  among  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah.    Such  are  the  following : 

The  northern  border  of  J udah  passed  up  through  the  valley 
of  Hinnom,  on  the  south  of  Jerusalem,  "  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain  before  the  valley  of  Hinnom  westward  ;  which  is 
at  the  end  of  the  valley  of  Rephaim  northward."  ^  This 
mountain  or  hill  could  only  be  tlie  low  hill  west  of  the  valley 
of  Hinnom,  over  against  Zion,  now  terraced  and  planted  with 
fruit  trees.  It  lies  south  from  the  upper  part  of  the  vaDey 
of  Hinnom,  and  north  of  the  valley  of  Rephaim.^ 

From  the  top  of  that  hill,  the  border  passed  to  the  fountain 
of  Nephtoah,  "  and  went  out  to  the  cities  of  Mount  Ephron  ; 
and  was  drawn  to  Baalah,  which  is  Kirjath-jearim."  ^  If, 
now,  the  fountain  of  Nephtoah,  as  is  probable,  was  at  'Ain 
Karim,  the  largest  fountain  in  that  region,  then  the  border 
ran  from  the  valley  of  Hinnom  to  Kirjath-jearim,  in  nearly 

1  Joseph.  Antiq.,  15.  9.  4.  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  21.  10;  comp.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  9.  5.  Bib- 
Ucal  Researches,  I.  pp.  480,  481  [II.  pp.  172-174]. 

2  2  Sam.  V.  18,  20,  22,  25;  1  Chron.  xiv.  9,  11,  13, 16. 

'  Isa.  xxviii.  21.  *  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  159. 

^  Josh.  XV.  8,  9.  *  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  159. 

'  Josh.  XV.  9. 


46 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAKD. 


a  straight  line.  If  Neplitoali  be  sought  at  one  of  the  small 
fountains  in  Wady  el-Werd,  then  the  border  made  a  curve 
towards  the  south.  In  either  case,  however,  the  Mount  Eph- 
ron  on  its  course  could  only  be  the  high  ridge  running  from 
northeast  to  southwest,  between  the  deep  valley  which  passes 
down  by  KulSnieh  and  'Ain  Karim  on  the  east,  and  the  east- 
ern branch  of  Wady  Ghurab  on  the  west ;  the  same  ridge  on 
which  are  now  the  lofty  sites  of  Soba  and  Kiistul. 

Towards  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  same  high  ridge 
is  now  situated  the  village  of  Kesla,  representing  the  ancient 
Chesalon,  In  this  part  the  ridge  bore  the  name  of  Mount 
Jearim,  —  that  is,  mount  of  Forests,  —  as  having  been  an- 
ciently covered  with  wood.^ 

From  Kirjatli-jearim,  the  border,  it  is  said,  "  compassed 
westward  unto  Mount  Seir,  and  passed  along  unto  the  side  of 
Mount  Jearim,  which  is  Chesalon,  on  the  north  side  ;  and 
went  down  to  Beth-shemesh."  ^  Here  the  natural  explana- 
tion would  seem  to  be,  that  from  Kirjath-jearim  westward, 
the  border  followed  the  high  watershed,  between  the  slope 
towards  Wady  Ghurab  on  the  south  and  the  heads  of  valleys 
running  towards  the  western  plain  on  the  north,^  until  it 
struck  the  head  of  the  northwestern  branch  of  Wady  Ghurab, 
near  Saris.  Mount  Seir,  then,  was  apparently  the  ridge  along 
the  southeastern  side  of  that  branch ;  and  the  border  followed 
it  to  its  termination  in  the  fork  of  two  branches.  Thence 
it  crossed  to  the  north  side  of  Mount  Jearim,  which  is  Ches- 
alon (Kesla)  ;  and  so  passed  down  through  the  deep  enclosed 
plain  to  Beth-shemesh.^  The  territory  west  of  this  part  of  the 

1  Josh.  XV.  10.  2  Ibid, 

s  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  156. 

•*  If  Mount  Seir  was  the  high  ridge  on  the  northwest  side  of  the  branch  valley, 
looking  towards  the  sea,  along  which  we  travelled,  in  1852,  from  Mihsir  to  Saris, 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


47 


border,  from  Kirjaili-jearim  to  Betli-shemesli,  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Dan.^ 

Hills  near  the  seacoast  of  Judah.  —  The  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, from  its  southeast  corner  northward  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  Joppa,  is  lined,  with  few  interruptions,  by  sand-hills  ; 
some  of  which  are  large,  and  some  in  the  course  of  ages  have 
become  covered  with  soil.  Of  these,  three  or  four  are  men- 
tioned. 

The  northern  border  of  Judah  was  drawn  from  Beth-she- 
mesh  by  Timnah  to  Ekron,  and  thence  to  Mount  Baalah, 
Jabneel,  and  the  sea.  It  passed  through  Ekron  ;  for  Ekron 
is  named  among  the  cities  of  both  Judah  and  Dan.^  Not  far 
west  of  Ekron  ('Akir),  is  a  short  line  of  hills,  nearly  parallel 
with  the  coast ;  west  of  which  the  great  Wady  Surar,  here 
known  as  Nahr  Rubin,  passes  down  from  the  left  to  the  sea. 
On  one  of  the  hills  is  the  Wely,  Neby  Rubin  ;  and  on  the 
west  side  of  the  stream  is  Yebna,  the  ancient  Jabneel.'^  This 
line  of  hills  is  apparently  the  Mount  Baalah  of  Scripture. 

In  the  Apocrypha  a  Mount  Azotus  is  spoken  of,  to  which 
the  right  wing  of  Bacchides  retreated  ;  referring  probably  to 
the  low  round  hill  or  Tell  on  which  Azotus  (Ashdod)  was, 
and  still  is,  situated.*  Josephus  speaks  of  the  same  place  as 
Mount  Aza  ;  and  Epiphanius  as  Gazara  or  Gazarat ;  mean- 
ing, perhaps,  the  similar  eminence  on  which  Gaza  stands.^ 

Pliny  mentions  a  Mons  Angaris  in  connection  with  Gaza 

it  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  border  should  have  crossed  again  to  Mount  Jcarim, 
instead  of  keeping  along  the  same  ridge,  and  so  passing  down  to  Beth-shemesh. 
,  1  Josh.  xix.  40-46. 
'  2  Josh.  XV.  11,  45;  xix.  43. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  227  sq.  [III.  p.  21  sq.]. 

4  1  Mac.  ix.  15.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  33  [II.  p.  368],   Richardson's  Trav- 
els, II.  p.  206.   Tobler  Dritte  Wanderung,  p.  26. 
«  Joseph.  Antiq.,  12.  11.  2,  et  Not.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  37  [II.  p.  375J. 


48 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


and  Antbedon,  and  apparently  towards  Askelon.^  It  could 
hardly  have  been  more  than  one  of  tbe  sandbills. 

In  tbe  book  of  J udges,  it  is  narrated  that  Samson  took  tbe 
doors  of  tbe  gate  of  Gaza,  "  and  carried  tbem  up  to  tbe  top 
of  the  hill  tbat  is  toiuards  Hebron.^  About  balf  an  bour 
southeast  of  Gaza,  near  one  of  tbe  roads  to  Hebron,  is  a 
partially  isolated  bill,  witb  a  Wely  on  it,  called  el-Muntar  ; 
tbe  bigbest  point  in  the  vicinity.  Latin  tradition  has  fixed 
upon  tbis  as  tbe  hill  to  which  Samson  bore  off  the  gates ; 
'  and  the  supposition  is  not  improbable.^ 

3.  Mountains  overhanging  the  Ghor  and  Dead  Sea  on  the  West. 

The  western  side  of  the  Ghor,  or  valley  of  tbe  Jordan,  in  its 
southern  part,  and  also  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  a  succession  of 
mountains  and  precipitous  cliffs,  as  seen  from  the  east.  But 
as  they  thus  overhang  the  deeply  depressed  valley  and  sea, 
their  apparent  elevation  is  all  on  that  side  ;  while,  as  seen 
from  the  west,  they  rise  little,  if  any,  above  the  high  table- 
land and  ridges  behind  them. 

This  general  character  of  the  western  wall  of  tbe  valley 
begins  south  of  Wady  Fari'a,  nearly  east  of  Nabulus.  Here, 
skirting  that  low  plain  on  the  south,  rises  at  once  the  high 
and  imposing  ridge  of  Kurn  Surtabeh,  extending  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  consisting  of  naked  limestone  rock. 
The  northwestern  end  is  the  highest,  and  rises  abruptly  from 
among  the  lower  ridges  and  valleys  coming  down  from  the 
west,  so  as  to  appear  almost  as  an  isolated  ridge,  only  slightly 
connected  with  the  high  western  region.  As  seen  from  the 
west,  more  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  it  appears  as  a  mass 

1  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  5.  13.  v.  14.   Reland,  p.  345. 

2  Judg.  xvi.  3.   Not  "  before  Hebron,"  as  in  the  English  Version. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  39  [H.  p.  377]. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


49 


of  naked,  jagged  ridges  huddled  together,  with  one  main 
backbone  running  through  the  whole.  This  mountain  ex- 
tends far  out  into  the  Ghor  ;  and  towards  the  southeastern 
extremity,  where  it  is  still  high,  is  the  horn  (Kiirn),  not 
unlike  that  of  a  rhinoceros  in  form.  Beyond  this  is  a  large 
shoulder ;  and  then  a  low  rocky  ridge,  reaching  almost  to 
the  Jordan.  Indeed,  the  valley  of  the  Jordan^ is  here  con- 
tracted to  its  narrowest  limits ;  and  the  ridge  of  Kurn  Sur- 
tabeli  may  be  said  to  divide  it  into  the  lower  and  upper  Gh6r. 
The  elevation  of  Kurn  Surtabeh  above  the  Mediterranean 
is  given  by  Symonds  at  one  thousand  and  twenty-eight  feet, 
which  makes  it  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  forty-five 
feet  above  the  Dead  Sea.  Along  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
this  mountain  is  everywhere  a  conspicuous  object,  whether 
looking  up  or  down  the  GhOr  from  the  Dead  Sea  or  from 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Nabulus  it 
is  not  visible,  by  reason  of  intervening  hills.  Surtabeh  is 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  as  the  station  next  after  the  mount 
of  Olives,  where  signal-torches  wore  lighted  and  waved  to 
announce  the  appearance  of  the  new  moon.^ 

Northwest  from  Jericho  is  the  mountain  Quarantana,  so 
called  as  the  supposed  place  of  our  Saviour's  forty  days' 
temptation.  The  Arabs  have  adopted  this  name  under  the 
form  of  Jebel  Kuruntiil.  The  mountain  rises  precipitously 
from  the  valley,  an  almost  perpendicular  wall  of  rock,  twelve 
or  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  plain,  and  is  crowned  with 
a  chapel  on  its  highest  point.  The  eastern  part  is  full  of 
grots  and  caverns,  where  hermits  are  said  once  to  have  dwelt 
in  great  numbers.  At  the  present  day,  as  is  reported,  some 
three  or  four  Abyssinians  from  the  convent  in  Jerusalem  come 
hither  annually,  and  pass  the  time  of  Lent  upon  the  moun- 

1  See  generally,  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  293,  294,  318. 
7 


50 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


tain,  living  only  on  herbs.  There  is  nothing  else  remarkable 
about  this  naked  cliff,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  similar 
ones  along  the  Gh6r  and  the  Dead  Sea  further  south.  The 
tradition  which  makes  this  mountain  the  place  of  our  Lord's 
temptation,  as  well  as  the  name  Quarantana,  appears  not  to 
be  older  than  the  age  of  the  crusades. ^ 

Several  similar  cliffs  stand  out  along  the  western  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea  ;  none  of  which,  however,  are  alluded  to  in 
Scripture,  and  only  one  or  two  in  other  ancient  writings. 
One  of  these  is  Ras  el-Feshkhah,  a  conspicuous  promontory 
jutting  out  E.  N.  E.  into  the  northwestern  part  of  the  sea.^ 
Another  is  the  cliff*  above  'Ain  Terabeh,  affording  one  of  the 
finest  views  of  the  magnificent  though  desolate  scenery  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  This  was  the  starting  point  of  the  level  run 
in  1848  by  Lieut.  Dale  of  the  American  Expedition,  between 
the  Dead  Sea  and  Mediterranean ;  the  elevation  of  the  cliff 
or  pass  above  the  surface  of  the  sea  below  it  being  found  to 
be  thirteen  hundred  and  six  feet.^  A  third  cliff"  is  Ras  el- 
Mersed,  situated  north  of  the  little  plain  of  En-gedi  ('Ain 
Jidy).  This  is  perhaps  the  highest  and  most  inaccessible  of 
all  the  cliffs  along  the  western  coast  of  the  sea  ;  and  its  base, 
projecting  into  the  water,  cuts  off  all  further  passage  along 
the  shore,  except  when  the  water  is  quite  low.^ 

This  cliff,  el-Mersed,  and  others  adjacent,  as  also  the  high 
broken  region  further  back,  would  naturally  be  the  mountains 
of  En-gedi^  which  some  suppose  Joseplms  to  speak  of.^  At 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  567  [II.  p.  303] . 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  531,  532  [H.  p.  250]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  L  pp.  528-530,  612  [H.  pp.  245-248]. 
*  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  506  [H.  p.  212]. 

«  Joseph.  Antiq.,  6.  13.  4.  Reland  here  reads  'Ej/ycSTjpoty  ope<Ti,  Palaestina,  pp. 
345,  763.   But  the  only  approved  reading  is  'Evy.  '6pois,  borders. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN.  51 

any  rate  they  include  the  narrow  passes  [ra  arevd)  of  En- 
gedi  which  he  mentions  in  the  same  place  ;  and  constitute 
the  wilderness  of  En-gedi  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  where  David 
and  his  men  dwelt  "  upon  the  rocks  of  the  wild  goats."  ^ 

Over  against  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  rises  conspicuously,  like  a  large  bulwark,  the  cliff 
Sebbeh,  the  site  of  the  celebrated  ancient  fortress  Masada, 
described  by  Josephus.  It  stands  out  a  huge  mass  of  rock, 
nearly  isolated,  having  deep  precipitous  valleys  on  the  north 
and  south.  The  elevation  above  the  Dead  Sea  is  estimated 
at  one  thousand  two  hundred  feet.  The  top  is  a  nearly 
level  area,  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  from 
north  to  south  by  one  third  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  Here 
stood  the  ancient  fortress ;  of  which  traces  still  remain,  as 
well  as  of  other  buildings  down  to  Saracenic  times.^ 

Along  the  shore  at  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Dead  Sea 
lies  the  long  ridge  or  mound  known  to  the  Arabs  as  Khashm 
Usdum  ;  which  latter  word  doubtless  represents  the  ancient 
name  Sodom.  The  remarkable  feature  of  this  mountain  is, 
that  the  main  body  of  it  is  a  solid  mass  of  rock  salt.  The 
ridge  is  about  five  miles  in  length  by  hardly  more  than  one 
in  breadth  ;  and  is  strictly  an  outlier  in  front  of  the  mountains 
proper,  separated  from  them  by  the  desolate  valley,  Wady 
el-Muhauwat,  with  its  tracts  of  chalky,  conical  mounds.  It 
is  in  general  uneven  and  rugged  ;  varying  from  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  The  upper  part  is 
covered  with  layers  of  chalky  limestone  or  marl,  so  as  to 
present  mostly  the  appearance  of  common  earth  or  rock  ; 

1  Joseph.  Antiq.,  6.  13.  4.   1  Sam.  xxiv.  1,  2. 

2  See  Article  Masada,  in  Part  III.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  7.  8.  2  sq.  Biblical  Re- 
searches, I.  p.  525  [II.  p.  241].  Wolcott,  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  pp.  G2-G7. 
Lynch's  Narrative,  pp.  330-334.   Anderson's  Report,  pp.  177-179. 


52 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


yet  the  mass  of  salt  below  often  breaks  out,  and  appears  on 
the  side  in  precipices  forty  or  fifty  feet  high  and  several  hun- 
dred feet  in  length,  mere  crystallized  fossil  salt.  The  side 
of  the  mountain  next  the  sea  is  often  curiously  furrowed  into 
many  conical  or  tent-shaped  knolls.  Sometimes  pillars  are 
thus  formed  in  front  of  the  precipices.  Large  lumps  and 
masses  also,  broken  off  from  above,  lie  like  rocks  along  the 
shore,  or  are  fallen  down  as  debris.  The  very  stones  beneath 
the  traveller's  feet  are  wholly  of  salt.  The  lumps  of  salt 
are  not  transparent,  but  present  a  dark  appearance ;  precise- 
ly like  the  salt  obtained  from  the  mines  along  the  lower 
Danube. 

About  midway  of  the  ridge,  a  cavern  opens  in  front,  on 
the  level  of  the  shore,  and  extends,  as  a  narrow  chasm, 
several  hundred  feet  into  the  mountain.  The  rock  is  all 
fossil  salt,  and  a  torrent  rushes  through  the  chasm  in  the 
rainy  season.^ 

No  direct  mention  is  made  of  this  mountain  of  salt,  either 
in  Scripture  or  in  Josephus.  Yet  its  existence  here  enables 
us  to  fix  the  position,  in  a  good  degree,  of  the  "  Valley  of 
Salt,"  where  the  Hebrews  under  David,  and  again  under 
Amaziah,  gained  decisive  victories  over  Edom  ;  ^  and  also  of 
the  "  City  of  Salt,"  enumerated  along  with  En-gcdi  as  in 
the  desert  of  Judah.^  Both  were  doubtless  so  called  because 
of  their  proximity  to  this  mountain.  The  only  direct  men- 
tion in  ancient  times  is  by  Galen,  who,  in  speaking  of  the 
salt  gathered  near  the  Dead   Sea,  calls  it  "  Sodom  Salt, 

1  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  107-110  [H.  p.  482  sq.].  Lynch's  Nan-ativc,  p.  30G 
sq.   Anderson's  Geological  Report,  p.  181. 

2  2  Sam.  viii.  13;  1  Chron.  xviii.  12;  2  Kings  xlv.  7.  Biblical  Researches,  II. 
p.  109  [H.  p.  483]. 

3  Josh.  XV.  61,  62. 


MOUNTAINS  WEST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


53 


from  the  mountains  round  about  the  lake,  which  are  called 
Sodom."  1 

In  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  the  mountain  of  the  Amorites 
is  spoken  of  as  lying  between  Kadesh-barnea  and  the  interior 
of  the  Promised  Land.^  This  seems  to  refer  to  that  portion 
of  the  western  mountains  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  along 
the  southern  GhOr  and  Wady  'Arabah.  While  at  Kadesh, 
the  Hebrews,  contrary  to  the  command  of  God,  attempted  to 
ascend  this  mountain,  and  so  enter  Palestine  ;  but  were  dis- 
comfited and  driven  back  by  the  Amorites,  who  dwelt  there. 
This  name  is  here  used  broadly,  as  including  also  the  Am- 
alekites  and  other  Canaanites.^ 

South  of  the  Dead  Sea,  we  also  read  of  the  Maaleh  ( Ascent 
of)  Akrabbim,  or  "  Scorpion"  Cliffs  ;  "  to  which  the  south- 
eastern border  of  Judah  Avas  to  be  drawn  from  the  Dead  Sea, 
"  from  the  bay  that  looketh  southward  ;  "  and  was  thence  to 
pass  on  to  Zin  and  Kadesh-barnea.^  This  is  apparently  the 
remarkable  line  of  cliffs  which  crosses  the  Ghor  obliquely 
six  or  eight  miles  south  of  the  sea,  and  forms  the  step  or 
offset,  the  dividing  line,  between  the  Ghor  and  the  higher 
level  of  Wady  'Arabah.  This  range  of  cliffs  lies  in  an  irreg- 
ular curve,  sweeping  across  the  Ghor  in  a  general  course 
from  northwest  to  southeast ;  the  length  being  seven  or  eight 
miles.  The  cliffs  are  of  chalky  earth,  or  indurated  marl ; 
and  vary  in  height,  in  different  parts,  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet.  The  face  of  the  cliffs,  though  very  steep, 
is  not  perpendicular ;  and  they  are  much  furrowed  by  the 
rains  ;  so  that  the  upper  part  presents  a  jagged  appearance. 

1  Galen,  de  simpl.  Medic.  Facult.,  IV.  p.  19.  Reland,  Palaestina,  u.  243.  Bib- 
lical Researches,  II.  p.  109  [U.  p.  483]. 

2  Deut.  i.  19,  20,  44. 

3  Deut.  i.  40-44;  comp.  Num.  xiv.  40-45. 
*  Num.  xxxiv.  3,  4;  Josh.  xv.  2,  3. 


54 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


All  along  their  base,  fountains  of  brackish  water  ooze  out, 
and  form  a  tract  of  marshy  land,  overgrown  with  canes  in- 
termingled with  shrubs  and  trees. ^ 

n.   MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 

From  the  southeastern  base  of  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  the  an- 
cient Hermon,  there  is  thrown  off  a  broad  ridge  towards  the 
south,  which  forms  the  eastern  wall  of  hill-country  along  the 
upper  Jordan  to  the  lake  of  el-Huleh.  This  range,  although 
at  first  as  high  as  the  western  mountains,  soon  declines 
towards  the  south.  From  the  western  base  it  rises,  gradu- 
ally and  brokenly,  to  table-land  on  the  top,  on  which,  at  some 
distance  back,  are  seen  a  line  of  wooded  hills  (Tells),  ex- 
tending from  north  to  south  :  the  southernmost  of  which 
is  Tell  el-Feras.  This  broad  ridge  gradually  sinks  down 
towards  the  south,  until  it  is  lost  in  the  table-land  east  of 
the  lake  of  Tiberias.  The  present  name  of  this  mountain  is 
Jebel  Heish ;  but  no  mention  of  it  has  come  down  from 
ancient  times.^ 

On  the  east  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  stretches  the  table-land 
of  Jaulan,  the  ancient  Gaulonitis.  As  seen  from  the  west, 
from  Safed,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a  vast  uneven  plain, 
intersected  by  deep  valleys  and  chasms  running  towards  the 
lake.  The  view  extends  even  beyond  this  district,  and  em- 
braces a  great  part  of  Hauran,  quite  to  the  borders  of  the 
Lejah.  Beyond,  and  towards  the  eastern  desert,  is  seen 
Jebel  ed-Deruz  (Druze  mountain),  so  called  hi  the  region 
itself,  and  elsewhere  known  also  as  Jebel  Hauran.^ 

This  is  a  mountainous  tract  running  from  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W., 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  116,  120  [IL  pp.  495,  501]. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  397,  401. 

s  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  432  [III.  p.  336]. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


55 


some  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  length.  It  rises  gradually  from 
the  north,  is  mostly  volcanic,  and  lies  in  several  ridges,  in- 
terspersed with  many  isolated  higher  hills  or  Tells  ;  some 
of  them  having  extinct  craters.  One  of  tliese,  Tell  Abu 
Tumeis,  in  the  northern  part,  is  a  lofty  conical  peak,  perhaps 
five  thousand  feet  high,  and,  standing  out  alone,  is  visible 
from  a  great  distance.^  The  summit  of  the  main  ridge  is  an 
elevated  plateau,  on  which  rise  the  highest  Tells  or  peaks  of 
the  Hauran,  the  Juwelil,  Jeneh,  Jefneh,  the  Kelb  or  Kuleib, 
etc.  Until  q.uite  recently  the  Kuleib  has  been  regarded  as 
the  loftiest  summit  of  Hauran  ;  and  so  it  appears  to  those 
viewing  it  (as  is  usual)  only  from  the  west.  But  the  meas- 
urements of  Dorgens,  in  1860,  shows  that  Tell  el-Jeneh, 
which  stands  further  east,  and  is  covered  by  the  Kuleib, 
is  still  liigher,  having  an  elevation  of  about  six  thousand 
feet,  while  the  height  of  the  Kuleib  is  about  five  thousand 
seven  hundred  feet.^  Still  the  Kelb  or  Kuleib  Hauran,^  as 
it  is  called,  is  the  most  conspicuous  of  all,  rising  as  a  lofty 
and  graceful  cone,  and  seeming  to  overtop  the  whole  range. 
The  Kuleib  has  an  extinct  crater  opening  towards  the 
southwest*    The  southern  and  eastern  sides  of  the  cone 

1  Porter's  Damascus,  II.  p.  51.  Wetzstein  in  Berl.  Zeitschr.  f.  Erdk.,  1859, 
Au^.,  p.  136. 

2  More  nearly,  cl- Jeneh,  five  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty  Paris  feet; 
el-Kulcib,  five  thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy  Paris  feet.  Dorgens  in  Berl. 
Zeitschr.  f.  Erdls.,  Dec.  1860,  p.  408. 

3  These  words,  Kelb  and  Kuleib,  are  written  by  Burckhardt  witli  the  letter  Kaf; 
and  so  too  by  Eli  Smith,  and  Tannus  his  educated  Arab  companion,  while  trav- 
elling through  this  region  in  1834.  Thus  written,  the  words  signify  'dog.* 
Burckhardt,  pp.  90, 92.  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  p.  157.  But  according  to 
the  later  authority  of  Porter  and  Wetzstein,  they  are  pronounced  with  the  guttural 
Kof,  and  so  signify  *  heart.'  Porter's  Damascus,  II.  p.  133.  Wetzstein,  I.e.,  p. 
136.  Not  improbably  the  pronunciation  may  vary  in  different  districts. 

*  Dorgens,  I.e.,  p.  408;  comp.  Wetzstein,  I.e.,  p.  136. 


56 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


are  naked,  the  northern  and  western  are  clothed  with  oak 
forests. 

South  of  the  Kuleib,  a  lower  ridge  stretches  off  southward, 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  The  middle  and  southern  por- 
tions of  this  mountain  range  exhibit  many  picturesque  fea- 
tures ;  the  northern  portion  is  more  tame  ;  but  all  parts  are 
described  as  very  fertile.  The  sides  of  the  mountain  rise 
also  very  gradually,  and  with  easy  slopes  and  terraces  of  the 
richest  soil.^ 

This  mountain  of  Hauran  is  doubtless  the  moimt  Alsada- 
mus  of  Ptolemy .2  But  is  it  referred  to  in  Scripture  ?  Once, 
and  once  only,  is  there  mention  of  a  "  mount  of  Bashan  ; 
but  without  any  note  of  its  position,  whether  within  or  upon 
the  borders  of  that  country.^  The  original  district  of  Bashan, 
afterwards  the  Batanaea  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  would 
seem  to  have  lain  around  and  to  have  included  the  Jebel 
Hauran  ;  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  same  district  bears 
to  this  day  the  same  name,  Ard  el-Beth  any  eh. ^  This  was 
the  nucleus  of  the  kingdom  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  who,  at 
the  time  of  the  approach  of  the  Israelites  to  Palestine,  had 
enlarged  his  domain  so  as  to  include  the  whole  region  east 
of  Jordan  and  north  of  the  Jabbok ;  extending  from  the 
Jabbok  to  Hermon,  and  from  Hermon  to  Sulchah,  now  Sul- 
khad,  on  the  southeastern  quarter  of  Jebel  Hauran.^  These 
limits  embraced  Gaulonitis  and  Jebel  Heish,  or  at  least  the 

I  1  Burckhardt,  pp.  90,  92.  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  p.  157.  Porter's 
Damascus,  H.  pp.  51,  57,  133,  201. 

^   2  PtoL,  5.  15.  Leake,  Preface  to  Burckhardt,  p.  12.    Gesenius'  Notes  on  Burck- 
hardt, p.  505. 
s  Ps.  Ixviii.  16,  17,  Heb. 

*  E.  Smith  in  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  p.  158.   Porter's  Damascus,  II. 
p.  57.   Wetzstein,  I.e.,  p.  194. 
«  Josh.  xii.  4,  5,  xiii.  11,  29  sq.;  Deut.  iii.  9,  10,  13;  1  Chron.  v.  23. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


57 


eastern  slope  of  the  latter,  quite  to  the  base  of  Hermon. 
Tliis  kingdom  of  Og  was  subdued  by  the  Hebrews,  and  as- 
signed to  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  ;  ^  and  it  became  the 
Bashan  afterwards  known  to  the  Israelites  and  the  sacred 
writers. 

The  Psalmist,  in  the  passage  referred  to,^  introduces  and 
personifies  the  mountains  of  Palestine  as  jealous  of  Mount 
Zion,  because  Jehovah  had  made  it  his  chosen  seat.  One  of 
these,  the  mount  of  Bashan,  he  apostrophizes  separately,  ap- 
parently as  the  loftiest  of  all,  and  worthy  to  be  the  seat  of 
Jehovah's  worship.  The  force  of  the  antithesis  requires  this 
interpretation.  The  mount  of  Bashan,  then,  can  only  be 
Mount  Hermon,  the  loftiest  of  the  mountains  of  Palestine 
and  its  borders  by  several  thousand  feet,  and  which  may  be 
said  to  cast  its  shadow  over  the  whole  land  of  Bashan.^ 

South  of  the  river  Yarmuk,  the  ancient  Hieromax,  the 
mountains  again  rise,  rather  suddenly,  along  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan.  Between  the  Yarmuk  and  the  deep  valley  of 
the  Zerka,  the  ancient  Jabbok,  they  are  now  known  as  the 
district  of  Jebel  'Ajlan.  There  is  no  ridge  nor  range  of  hills 
connecting  them  with  Jebel  esh-Sheikh  or  Jebel  Heish.  The 
intervening  tract,  the  plain  of  Jaulan,  presents,  along  the 
east  side  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the  edge  of  a  high  plateau, 
intersected  by  deep  ravines.* 

These  mountains  constitute  the  northern  portion  of  the 
land  of  Gilead,  which  lay  between  the  Yarmuk  on  the  north 
and  the  Arnon  on  the  south,  and  was  divided  at  about  one 
third  of  the  distance  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jabbok,  which 
cleaves  the  mountains  to  their  base.    This  territory,  in  its 

1  Deut.  iii.  13.  2  Ps.  Ixxviii.  16,  17,  Heb. 

8  So  too  Gesenius,  Ms.  Lect.  on  Psalms,  I.e.   Hengstenberg's  Comm.  in  loc. 
<  E.  Smith  in  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  p.  1G2. 
8 


58  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


whole  length,  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  land  of  Gilead,  and 
rarely  as  Mount  Gilead.^  The  portions  north  and  south  of 
the  Jabbok  are  each  spoken  of  as  "  the  half  of  Gilead  "  ;  2 
though  the  northern  is  only  two  thirds  as  long  as  the  southern, 
or  about  thirty  geographical  miles.  This  northern  Gilead 
was  subject  to  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  and  was  given  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.^  It  was  in  this  northern  Mount  Gilead, 
that  Laban  overtook  Jacob  ;  and  here  too  dwelt  Gideon ; 
whence  perhaps  we  may  account  for  the  manner  in  which 
the  latter  once  speaks  of  Mount  Gilead.^ 

The  chasm  of  the  Jabbok  is  nearly  opposite  Nabulus  ;  and 
the  mountains  of  'Ajlun,  therefore,  lie  along  the  Jordan 
valley  over  against  the  lower  western  hills,  which  skirt  tlie 
northern  part  of  that  valley.  These  higher  eastern  moun- 
tains reach  their  greatest  altitude  in  the  south,  in  the  district 
el-Ma'rad,  towards  the  Jabbok.  The  summits  hero  are  the 
loftiest  beyond  Jordan.^  The  greatest  elevation,  as  compared 
with  Jebel  Jel'ad,  may  be  estimated  at  about  four  thousand 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean  ;  equivalent  to  six  thousand 
three  hundred  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea.  As  seen  from  Hau- 
ran  and  the  desert  further  south,  these  mountains  would 
seem  to  be  not  more  than  from  one  thousand  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  plain. 

The  western  side  of  this  mountain  ridge  rises  by  rather 
steep  slopes  or  steps,  with  intervening  terraces  and  fertile 
tracts.  The  summit,  in  the  northern  part,  forms  a  broad 
ridge  of  uneven  table-land.  There  are  various  ridges  and 
summits  and  isolated  hills,  and  also  deep  valleys.    Of  these, 

1  Gen.  xxxi.  21,  23,  25;  Deut.  iii.  12;  Judg.  vii.  3;  Cant.  iv.  1. 

2  Josh.  xii.  2,  5,  xiii.  31;  Deut.  iii.  12. 

3  Josh.  xii.  5,  xiii.  31;  Deut.  iii.  13. 

*  Gen.  xxxi.  21,  23,  25;  Judg.  vi.  15,  vil.  3. 
Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  347. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


59 


two  main  ones,  Wady  Yabis  and  Wady  'Ajliin,  run  down 
to  the  Jordan.  The  whole  mountain  is  well  populated,  and 
cultivated.  Large  portions  of  it,  especially  in  the  south,  are 
still  covered  with  forests  and  orchards  of  oaks  of  various 
kinds  ;  among  these,  the  oaks  of  Bashan.  In  1834,  Eli  Smith 
travelled  through  it,  and  thus  writes :  "  Jebel  'Ajlun  pre- 
sents the  most  charming  rural  scenery  that  I  have  seen  in 
Syria.  A  continued  forest  of  noble  trees,  chiefly  the  ever- 
green oak  (Sindian),  covers  a  large  part  of  it,  while  the 
ground  beneath  is  clothed  Avith  luxuriant  grass,  and  decked 
with  a  rich  variety  of  wild  flowers.  As  we  went  from  el- 
Ilusn  to  'Ajlun,  our  path  lay  along  the  very  summit  of  the 
mountain  ;  and  we  often  overlooked  a  large  part  of  Palestine 
on  one  side,  and  the  whole  of  Hauran  on  the  other."  ^ 

South  of  the  Jabbok,  and  extending  from  it  to  the  deep 
chasm  of  the  river  Arnon,  is  the  range  of  mountains  form- 
ing the  southern  portion  of  Gilead  ;  and  likewise  spoken  of 
as  "  half  Mount  Gilead  ;  "  ^  though  it  is  longer  by  one  half 
than  the  northern  Gilead ;  being  about  forty-five  geographi- 
cal miles  in  extent  from  north  to  south.  The  modern  name 
of  the  whole  district  is  el-Belka.  From  the  Jabbok  and  from 
the  Jordan  valley,  the  mountain  rises  steeply  to  a  high  un- 
even tract,  on  which,  after  an  interval  of  two  hours,  lies  the 
still  higher  ridge  of  Jebel  Jel'ad  (Gilead),  so  called  from  a 
ruined  town  upon  it.  This  mountain  extends  from  east  to 
west  six  or  seven  miles  in  length,  and  its  lofty  western  ex- 
tremity overtops  the  whole  of  the  Belka.  On  it  is  a  Wely 
of  Neby  Osha'  (Hosea)  ;  whence  the  mountain  is  also  called 
Jebel  Osha'.    The  elevation,  according  to  Dorgens,  is  about 

1  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.  p.  1G2.  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  317, 
318.   Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  pp.  93,  147.   Lord  Lindsay,  1808,  p.  272. 

2  Deut.  iii.  12. 


60 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAKD. 


three  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean. From  this  summit  there  is  a  very  wide  and  splendid 
prospect. 1  The  slopes  are  clothed  with  forests  of  oak  and 
other  trees. 

Near  the  southern  foot  of  Jebel  JePad,  surrounded  by 
steep  mountains,  is  situated  es-Salt,  probably  the  ancient 
Ramoth-Gilead,  For  six  or  eight  miles  south  of  es-Salt,  the 
country  continues  hilly,  richly  wooded,  and  picturesque. 
Further  south  it  spreads  out  into  a  high  and  wide  plain,  ap- 
parently on  a  level  with  the  eastern  desert,  and  bordered 
towards  it  by  a  chain  of  hills.  This  plain  has  many  isolated 
hills  or  Tells,  but  has  few  trees.  On  such  Tells  are  the 
ancient  sites  of  the  cities  Eleale  and  Heshbon.  The  western 
portion  of  this  plain  is  intersected  with  deep  Wadys  and 
precipices,  affording  at  intervals  a  view  of  the  Ghor  below  ; 
and  is  overgrown  in  many  parts  with  fine  woods.  Such  is 
the  general  character  of  this  upper  region,  quite  to  the 
chasm  of  the  Arnon,  midway  of  the  Dead  Sea.^ 

Along  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  quite  to  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
western  slope  of  the  mountain  rises  gradually  and  by  easy 
ascents.  But  further  south,  along  the  eastern  side  of  the 
sea,  all  becomes  more  wild  and  precipitous.  The  line  of 
mountains  on  the  east  of  this  sea,  is  apparently  higher  than 
those  on  the  west ;  the  latter  having,  about  Hebron,  an  eleva- 
tion of  not  less  than  three  thousand  feet  above  the  western 
sea.3    The  high  plain,  therefore,  above  described,  cannot 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  348,  353  sq.  Lord  Lindsay,  1858,  p.  283.  Irby  and 
Mangles,  1847,  p.  98.  Dcirgens,  more  nearly,  three  thousand  four  hundred  and 
thirty  Paris  feet;  Berl.  Zeitschr.  f.  Erdk.,  18G0,  Dec.,  p.  417. 

2  Seetzen,  L  pp.  407,  410.  Burckhardt,  pp.  3G4-3GG.  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847, 
pp.  142,  14G. 

3  According  to  Roth,  the  elevation  of  Hebron  itself  is  three  thousand  and  twenty- 
six  English  feet.   Petermann,  Georg.  Mitth.,  18-38,  p.  3. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


61 


well  be  assumed  as  of  less  elevation  ;  that  is,  three  thousand 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  or  four  thousand  three  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  Dead  Sea.  Along  the  western  verge  of 
tliis  plain,  between  the  Wadys  which  here  cut  their  way- 
down  to  the  Ghur,  rise  a  series  of  heights  and  ridges,  forming 
a  lofty  crest,  overlooking  the  deep  caldron  below.  The  high- 
est of  these  is  Jebel  'Attar us,  south  of  the  Zerka-Ma'in. 
From  this  high  brow,  the  ridges  and  precipices  of  the  western 
slope  sink  down  in  wild  confusion  to  the  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  some  five  thousand  feet  below,  where  they  terminate  in 
a  series  of  perpendicular  cliffs  rising  from  twelve  hundred  to 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  water.  The  steep  and  narrow 
chasms  of  the  Zerka-Ma'in  and  the  Mojib  or  Arnon  are  seen 
breaking  their  way  down  precipitously  to  the  sea.  It  is  true 
that  in  this  line  of  mountains,  south  of  Jebel  Jel'ad,  as  seen 
from  Jericho  and  the  western  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  or  also 
from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  there  appears  no  summit  standing 
out  prominently,  no  peak  or  point  conspicuously  higher  than 
the  rest ;  but  all  is  apparently  one  almost  level  line  of  sum- 
mit, without  peaks  and  without  gaps.^  This  is  probably  the 
effect  of  distant  view ;  for  we  know  that  such  heights  do 
exist,  as  seen  from  the  east ;  like  Jebel  'Attarus  and  others ; 
though  their  elevation  above  the  high  plain  on  the  east  is  not 
great. 

Within  the  limits  of  this  southern  "  half  Mount  Gilead," 
were  comprised  also  the  particular  mountains  of  Abarim,  Pis- 
gahj  Nebo,  and  Peor,  all  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
death  of  Moses  and  the  approach  of  Israel  to  the  Promised 
Land.  At  an  earlier  period,  the  territory  of  Moab  had  ex- 
tended far  north  of  the  Arnon,  and  included  also  the  south 
eastern  part  of  the  Jordan  valley.    Of  all  this  northern 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  569  [II.  p.  30C]. 


62  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


territory  Moab  had  been  dispossessed  by  Sihon,  king  of  the 
Amorites.^  The  Hebrews,  approaching  by  the  desert  along 
the  eastern  border  of  Edom  and  Moab  proper,  overthrew 
Sihon  ;  and  afterwards  gave  his  land  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad.2  But  the  region  continued  to  be  spoken  of  as  the 
"  land  of  Moab  ; ' '  ^  and  the  plains  along  the  lower  Jordan, 
being  a  part  of  the  great  ^Arabah,  were  called  the  ^Arhoth 
3Ioab,  signifying  the  ''wastes  or  plains  of  Moab."^  Here 
Israel  abode  for  a  long  time  ;  for  it  was  during  their  sojourn 
in  these  plains  by  Jordan,  that  Balaam  uttered  his  prophecies  ; 
and  here  also  took  place  the  whoredoms  with  the  daughters 
of  Moab  (Midianites),  and  the  war  against  Midian  ;  as  like- 
wise all  the  events  recorded  in  Deuteronomy,  including  the 
thirty  days  of  mourning  for  Moses.^  From  these  plains  of 
Moab,  the  Hebrews,  under  Joshua,  immediately  crossed  the 
Jordan.^ 

Of  the  particular  mountains  above  mentioned.  Mount  Aba- 
rim,  or  the  mountains  of  Abarim^  is  but  another  name  for 
that  portion  of  Mount  Gilead  lying  over  against  Jericho  and 
further  south.  The  name  Abarim  signifies  '  regions  beyond  ; ' 
and  on  the  lips  of  tribes  dwelling  west  of  Jordan,  would  be 
an  apt  appellation  for  the  ''  mountains  beyond  Jordan."  It 
was  on  these  mountains,  near  Xebo,  that  Israel  encamped, 
as  the  last  station  before  descending  to  the  plains  of  Moab 
by  Jordan  ;  ^  and  it  was  into  the  same  mountains  of  Abarim, 

1  Xum.  xxi.  26. 

2  Xum.  xxi.  11-13;  Judg.  xi.  18;  Xum.  xxi.  23-26,  xxxii.  33. 

3  Deut.  i.  5,  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  5,  6,  8. 

*  Xum.  xxii.  1,  xxvi.  3,  xxxi.  12,  xxxiii.  48-50,  xxxv.  1;  Deut.  xxxiv.  1. 

5  Xum.  xxii.-xxiv.,  xxv.,  xxxi.;  Deut.  xxxiv.  8. 

6  Josh.  i.  11,  iii.  1,  2. 

Xum.  xxvii.  12;  Deut.  xxxii.  49;  Xum.  xxxiii.  47,  48. 
8  Xum.  xxxiii.  47,  48. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORD.VN. 


63 


that  Moses  went  up  from  the  same  plains,  to  obtain  a  view 
of  the  Promised  Land,  and  die.^  The  name  Abarim  was 
apparently  sometimes  so  extended  as  to  include  all  the 
mountainous  tract  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  A  station  of  the 
Hebrews,  Ije-Abarim,  is  marked  as  in  or  near  the  desert  east 
of  Moab  proper ;  and  this  '  lim  of  Abarim '  would  seem  to 
be  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  lim  in  the  southeast 
of  Judah.2 

Pisgah  is  nowhere  said  to  be  a  mountain  ;  vet  the  phrase 
"  head  [top]  of  Pisgah,"  ^  as  well  as  other  notices,  imply 
that  it  was  a  ridge  or  range  of  mountains,  over  against  Jer- 
icho ;  and  therefore  so  far  identical  with  Mount  Abarim. 
Thus  Israel,  after  leaving  the  eastern  desert,  is.  said  (in  the 
Hebrew)  to  have  gone  "  from  Bamoth  to  the  plain 
which  is  in  the  country  (field)  of  Moab,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah, 
*  which  overlooketh  (r!2;?rn)  the  wilderness."  *  Here  the  plain 
is  some  part  of  the  high  table-land  along  the  summit  of  the 
mountains,  and  the  wilderness  is  the  desert  plain  of  the  'Ara- 
bah  below,  where  Israel  afterwards  so  long  encamped.^  In 
like  manner,  the  mountains  which  Moses  was  to  ascend  from 
the  camp  near  Jordan,  in  order  to  obtain  a  view  and  die, 
are  twice  spoken  of  as  Pisgah,  and  twice  as  Abarim.^  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  the  region  between  Livias  near  Jordan, 
and  Heshbon,  still  bore  in  his  day  the  name  Phusg-o  (Pisgah).'' 
In  Scripture  the  name  would  seem  to  be  applied  especially 

1  Num.  xxvii.  12,  13;  Deut.  xxxii.  49;  corap.  Deut.  iii.  27,  xxxiv.  1  sq.  Ono- 
mast.,  Article  Abarim. 

;   2  Num.  xxi.  11,  xxxiii.  44,  45;  Josh.  xv.  29. 
3  Num.  xxi.  20;  Deut  xxxiv.  1. 

*  Num.  xxi.  20;  comp.  Num.  xxxiii.  47,  48. 

*  Num.  xxiv.  1,  2;  Deut.  i.  1. 

6  Deut.  iii.  27,  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  1;  Num.  xxvii.  12,  13. 

7  Onomast.,  Article  Abarim. 


64 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


to  the  upper  part  of  these  mountains,  to  the  serrated  crests 
or  line  of  hciglits  forming  the  brow  of  the  mountains  on  the 
west  of  the  high  plain. 

The  mountain  which  Moses  ascended,  to  view  the  land 
and  die.  Mount  Nebo,  is  only  twice  certainly  spoken  of  in 
Scripture,  —  once  as  a  summit  in  the  Abarim,  and  once  as 
the  top  or  "  head  "  of  Pisgali,  over  against  Jericho. ^  In  one 
place  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  name  Xebo  is  to  be  under- 
stood of  a  mountain  or  a  town.^  In  all  the  other  passages 
relating  to  this  region  Nebo  is  undoubtedly  a  town  or  city  ; 
taking  its  name  from  the  mountain,  or  giving  name  to  the 
latter,  and  of  course  situated  near  it.  Thus  Nebo  is  enu- 
merated with  other  cities,  mostly  in  connection  with  Hcshbon 
and  Eleale,  and  especially  with  Baal-Meon,  now  Ma'in,  an 
hour  south  of  Heshbon.^  It  follows,  that  both  the  mountain 
and  town  of  Nebo  were  on  the  western  verge  of  the  high^ 
plain,  not  far  distant  from  Heshbon  and  Maon.  With  this 
accords  also  the  account  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  ;  that  in 
their  day  Mount  Nebo  was  pointed  out  six  miles  west  of 
Heshbon  ;  and  also  the  deserted  city  Nebo  eight  miles  south 
of  Heshbon.^  The  obvious  interpretation  here  is,  that  both 
mountain  and  town  lay  in  a  southwest  direction  from  Hesh- 
bon ;  and  if  the  relative  distances  are  correctly  given,  then 
apparently  the  town  must  have  been  situated  either  further 
south  than  the  mount,  or  else  below  the  high  brow  of  Pisgah, 
near  the  base  of  the  height  or  clifi"  Nebo.  At  the  present 
day  there  is  enumerated  among  the  sites  of  ruins  in  the 

1  Deut.  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  1.  2  Num.  xxxiii.  47. 

3  Xam.  xxxii.  3,  SS;  1  Chron.  v.  8;  and  so  Isa.  xv.  2;  Jcr.  xlviii.  1,  22.  Thore 
was  also  a  town  Nebo  in  Judah,  Ezra  ii.  29,  x.  43;  Xeli.  viL  33.  The  idol  Nebo 
is  mentioned  Isa,  xlvi.  L 

*  Onoraast.,  Articles  Nahan,  Naho.  In  the  former  article  the  'contra  orienta- 
lem  plagam '  of  Jerome,  is  obviously  an  error  for  occidentalem. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


65 


Belka,  a  place  called  Nehd^  in  near  connection  with  Eleale, 
Ileshbon,  and  Ma'in This  is,  without  much  doubt,  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Nebo ;  and  we  may  hope  that  the  researches 
of  future  travellers  will  bring  it  to  light,  and  thus  determine 
also  the  true  position  of  Mount  Nebo.^ 

The  height  named  Peor^  also,  is  nowhere  in  Scripture 
directly  termed  a  mountain  ;  yet  the  "  head  "  or  top  of  Peor 
is  once  spoken  of.*  On  it  a  Baal  was  worshipped,  Baal-Peor, 
or  also  simply  Peor  ;  ^  and  a  temple  or  tower,  Beth-Peor,  lay 
on  or  near  it.^  From  the  few  notices  in  Scripture  and  else- 
where, it  would  appear,  that  this  height,  Peor,  lay  further 
north  than  Nebo,  and  nearer  to  the  encampment  of  the  He- 
brews along  the  Jordan,  so  as  to  command  a  view  of  the 
whole  host.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  a  projecting  emi- 
nence, on  the  western  declivity  of  the  mountain,  and  "  over- 
looked (rii^rsin)  the  wilderness  ; that  is,  the  'Arabah,  where 
Israel  was  encamped  "  over  against  Beth-Peor."  ^  This  is 
shown,  also,  by  the  movements  of  Balak  and  Balaam,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  full  view  of  the  host.    From  a  city  on  the 

1  Hebrew,  Nebo;  Septuagint,  NojSoG;  Deut,  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  1. 

2  E.  Smith's  Arabic  Lists,  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  p.  170. 

3  In  1818,  Irby  and  Mangles  went  from  their  camp  near  Ma'in  to  a  height  not 
far  distant,  which  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  is  nearly  on  a  line 
with  its  northern  end.  Below  the  height  was  a  ruin  of  a  square  form.  This 
point,  if  the  distances  of  the  Onomasticon  are  correct,  would  seem  to  be  hardly 
far  enough  south  for  Nebo.   Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  p.  143. 

^  Num.  xxiii.  28. 

5  Num.  XXV.  3,  xxiii.  28,  xxxi.  16;  Josh.  xxii.  17. 

6  Deut.  iii.  29,  iv.  46,  xxxiv.  6;  Josh.  xiii.  20. 

^  Num.  xxiii.  28;  comp.  xxiv.  2;  Deut.  ill.  29,  iv.  46,  xxxiv.  6.  In  these  three 
passages  the  Hebrew  word  K^a  is  used ;  and  is  by  some  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
high  plain  upon  the  mountain.  But  the  transactions  narrated  just  before,  in 
each  case,  all  took  place  after  the  encampment  by  Jordan.  So  Deut.  iii.  29; 
comp.  Num.  xxvii.  12,  xxvi.  3.  Also  Deut.  iv.  4G;  comp.  v.  43;  Num.  xxxv.  1, 
6,  14. 

9 


66 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Arnon,  where  they  met,  they  first  moved  to  Kirjath-huzzoth, 
of  which  we  know  nothing  ;  and  thence  to  "  the  high  places 
(ni^s)  of  Baal,"  where  they  could  only  see  "  the  utmost  part 
of  the  people."  ^  They  next  go  to  "  the  watcher's  field,  to 
the  top  of  Pisgah ;  "  which  may  or  may  not  have  been  the 
same  with  Mount  Nebo,  though  more  probably  furtlier  north ; 
and  here  again  they  could  still  see  only  "  the  utmost  part " 
of  the  people,  and  not  all  of  them .2  At  last  they  repair  to 
"  the  top  of  Peor,  tliat  looketh  toward  the  wilderness  ;  "  and 
there  Balaam  "  saw  Israel  abiding  according  to  their  tribes ; "  ^ 
implying  a  nearer  and  unobstructed  view.  Still  more  def- 
inite are  the  statements  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome.  In  their 
day  a  Mount  Phogor  (Peor,  Septuagint  ^oycop)  was  pointed 
out  over  against  Jericho,  on  the  ascent  between  Livias  and 
Heshbon  ;  the  city  Beth-Phogor  was  six  miles  from  Livias  ; 
another  city,  Danneba,  lay  on  Mount  Phogor,  seven  miles 
from  Heshbon  ;  while  Heshbon  itself  was  twenty  miles  dis- 
tant from  the  Jordan.^  Hence  it  would  follow,  that  the 
height  known  as  Peor  lay  between  Danneba  and  Beth-Peor, 
about  midway  between  Livias  and  Heshbon. 

Of  all  the  heights  and  ridges  which  constitute  the  lofty 
brow  of  the  Abarim,  or  eastern  mountains,  the  highest  in 
the  southern  quarter  is  Jebel  'Attarus,  ah-eady  mentioned. 
Its  northern  end  rises  precipitously  from  the  south  side  of 
the  Zerka-Ma'in,  and  its  ridge  extends  southwest  for  six  or 
eight  miles.^  Upon  this  ridge,  about  midway  of  its  length, 
are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  town,  Attarus,  from  which  the 
mountain  takes  its  name.    This  marks  the  site  of  the  ancient 

1  Num.  xxii.  36,  39,  41.  2  Num.  xxiii.  13,  14. 

3  Num.  xxiii.  28;  comp.  xxiv.  2. 

4  Onomast.,  Articles  Abarim,  Beth-Fogor,  Damnaha,  Esebon,  Fogor. 
*  Seetzen,  Reisen,  H.  p.  342.   Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  370. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORD.VN. 


G7 


Ataroth  of  Gad,  wliicli  is  named  in  connection  with  Di- 
bon.^  On  the  southwestern  end  of  the  ridge  are  the  ruins 
now  called  Kureiyat,  marking  the  ancient  Kirjathaim  rebuilt 
by  Reuben.2  At  the  northern  extremity,  on  a  precipice  over- 
hanging the  Zerka-Ma'in,  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle, 
now  known  as  !Mkauer,  the  fortress  Machaerus  of  Herod  ; 
where,  according  to  Joseplius,  John  the  Baptist  was  be- 
headed.^ Hence,  though  this  mountain  is  not  expressly 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  it  is  yet  connected  with  several 
scriptural  associations. 

Josephus,  in  describing  the  line  of  mountains  on  the  east 
of  the  Jordan,  stretching  from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  Arabia 
Petraea,  speaks  of  one  called  the  Iron  Mountahi^  extending 
quite  to  Moab.*  The  name  would  seem  to  be  thus  applied 
to  the  mountain  along  the  northern  part  of  the  Dead  Sea,  as 
far  as  to  the  Arnon.  The  lower  portion  of  that  mountain 
is  comprised  in  great  part  of  sandstone  containing  iron, 
which  gives  it  a  reddish  hue ;  and  in  some  places  large 
masses  are  seen  of  a  dark  brown  or  black  color.^  Hence 
perhaps  the  ancient  name,  Iron  Mountains. 

South  of  the  Arnon,  the  land  of  Moab  proper  extended  to 
the  Wady  el-Ahsy,  the  brook  Zered  of  Scripture.^  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  region  remains  the  same  as  on  the  north 
of  the  Arnon ;  a  wall  of  wild,  desolate,  precipitous  moun- 

1  Num.  xxxii.  3,  34.   Seetzen,  Reisen,  11.  p.  342. 

2  Num.  xxxii.  37;  Josh.  xiii.  19;  Jcr.  xlviii.  1,  23.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  p.  342. 
Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  370. 

3  Seetzen,  Reisen,II.  pp.  331,  334.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  7. 6.  1-4.  Antiq.,  18.  5.  2. 
*  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  2,  to  'Xi^ripovu  Ka\ovfj.evov  upos. 

^  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  36-3,  370,  372,  374.  Eisenschiissiger  .Sandstein,  Eisen- 
sandstein.  Ibid.,  pp.  363,  374.  Burckhardt  supposes  the  name  may  have  come 
from  the  black,  heavy  stone  found  in  the  region,  resembling  basalt,  Sjn-ia,  p.  375. 

6  Num.  xxi.  12;  Deut.  ii.  13,  14;  comp.  18. 


68 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


tains,  rising  from  the  very  water  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  with  a 
high  plain  along  the  top,  back  of  the  lofty  brow,  less  grassy 
and  more  stony  than  that  further  north,^  and  passing  over 
into  the  eastern  desert.  The  steeps  along  the  sea,  south  of 
the  Mojib,  are  described  by  Seetzen  as  peculiarly  wild  and 
bare  of  vegetation,  with  gigantic  terraces  of  naked  sandstone 
or  limestone.^  Above,  along  the  brow,  only  one  particular 
height  is  mentioned,  seen  by  Burckhardt  from  the  east,  as 
Jebel  Shihan,  not  far  from  the  Arnon  ;  not  improbably  the 
same  which  Seetzen  saw  from  the  west,  and  heard  named 
only  er-Ras.2 

Further  south,  and  on  the  brow  of  the  mountain,  stands 
Kerak,  the  ancient  Kir  Moab,  upon  a  cliff  c^verhanging  a 
deep  valley.  It  is  distinctly  visible,  in  a  clear  day,  from  the 
Mount  of  Olives  ;  and  its  Wady  also  can  be  traced,  as  it 
runs  down  S.  W.  and  issues  upon  the  peninsula  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  elevation  of  Kerak,  according  to  Roth,  is 
about  three  thousand  three  hundred  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean, but  it  is  apparently  lower  than  the  high  plain  further 
north 

There  remain  two  words,  as  to  which  it  is  uncertain, 
whether  they  are  proper  names  of  mountains,  or  not.  These 
are  Bether  and  Bitliron.^  They  both  come  from  the  same 
Hebrew  verb,  and  signify  a  cleaving,  cleft,  fissure.  As  to  the 
latter  word,  it  is  said  of  Abner,  that  he  "  passed  over  Jordan, 
and  went  through  all  Bithron,  and  came  to  Malianaim." 
Here  Bithron  may  well  be  put  for  a  "mountain-cleft"  or 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  410.   Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  141,  142. 

2  Reisen,  H.  pp.  354,  363,  367. 

3  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  375.   Seetzen,  H.  p.  349.   See  also  De  Saulcy,  I.  p.  354. 

4  Geogr.  Mitth.,  1859,  p.  291.   Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  141. 

5  'Mountains  of  Bether,'  Cant.  ii.  17;  'Bithron'  2  Sam.  ii.  29. 


MOUNTAINS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


C9 


ravine  ;  implying  that  he  followed  up  either  Wady  'Ajlun 
or  Wady  Mahneh ;  either  of  which  would  have  brought  him 
to  Mahanaim,  which  lay  high  up  on  the  acclivity.  In  like 
manner,  Bether  may  best  be  taken  as  an  appellation,  ap- 
plied to  mountains  "  cleft  with  valleys,"  rugged,  precipitous.^ 
If,  however,  it  be  a  proper  name,  the  position  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Bether  is  utterly  unknown.  . 

1  Septuagint,  ip-q  koiKoiikxtiov^  Cant.  ii.  17. 


70 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


SECTION  n. 

VALLEYS. 

Not  less  than  four  different  Hebrew  words  are  rendered, 
in  the  English  Version,  by  the  term  valley,  with  more  or  less 
exactness.  A  few  remarks  upon  the  proper  signification  of 
each  of  these  Hebrew  words,  may  here  not  be  without  use. 

The  first  is  Bik^ah  strictly  "  a  cleft "  in  mountains, 

a  valley  ;  and  is  so  used  in  contrast  to  mountains.^  But  in 
common  usage  it  is  "  a  deep  and  wide  plain  between  ranges 
of  mountains."  Such  is  "  the  plain  of  Aven  "  or  On,^  the 
Syrian  Heliopolis,  now  Ba'albek ;  which  plain  or  valley, 
stretching  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  still  retains 
in  Arabic  its  ancient  appellation,  el-Buka'a,  "  a  cleft."  The 
same  word  is  put  for  the  broad  valley  or  plain  of  the  Jordan, 
both  at  its  northern  end  and  at  Jericho.^  Similar  in  signifi- 
cation are  the  Greek  Aulon  (^Avkcov)  and  the  Arabic  Ghor, 
both  used  later  as  appellations  to  denote  the  same  valley  of 
the  Jordan. 

Another  Hebrew  word  is  ^Emek  (P^3>),  which  signifies  a 
valley  or  low  plain,  similar  to  the  Bik'ah,  but  generally  on 
a  much  smaller  scale.  It  is  strictly  an  open  valley,  "  a  long 
low  plain  "  between  ranges  of  hills  or  mountains,  with  a 
broad  and  level  bottom,  adapted  for  tillage,  or  also  con- 


1  Deut.  viii.  7,  xi.  11;  Ps.  civ.  8. 
3  Josh  xi.  17,  xii.  7 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3. 


2  Amos  i.  5. 


VALLEYS. 


71 


venient  for  battles.^  Such  are  the  valleys  of  Jezreel,  of 
Repliaim,  and  of  Elah,  now  Wady  es-Sumt.  Yet,  as  we  shall 
see  further  on,  it  is  in  a  few  instances  spoken  of  the  great 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  which  is  strictly  a  Bik'ah, 

A  third  Hebrew  word  is  Nahal  (^ns)  the  primary  idea  of 
which  is  "  a  flowing,"  and  then  "  place  of  flowing."  Hence 
it  is  put  in  a  general  sense  for  a  flowing  stream,  a  brook  or 
river.2  So  the  Kishon  always.^  But  usually,  with  a  proper 
name,  the  Nahal  is  rather  "  a  place  of  flowing,"  a  valley  with 
a  stream ;  that  is,  a  narrow  valley  or  chasm,  often  deep,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  occupied,  in  great  part,  by  a  water-course. 
The  stream  may  be  permanent  or  transient.  The  Nahal 
therefore  differs  altogether  from  both  the  Bik'ah  and  the 
Emek.  Such  are  the  deep  chasms  of  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Arnon,  with  perennial  streams.  Such  is  the  ravine  of  the 
Kidron  (called  by  Josephus  ^dpay^'),  which  has  no  stream 
except  after  heavy  rain  ;  and  such  also  was  the  Cherith, 
where  Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens  until  the  brook  dried  up.^ 
In  like  manner  a  water-course  in  the  desert  is  called  a  Nahal; 
being  usually  a  gully  or  chasm  worn  by  the  torrents  of  the 
rainy  season  ;  or  lying  sometimes  between  low  hills.  Such  is 
the  Valley  of  Gerar,  and  also  that  of  Egypt,  now  Wady  el- 
'Arish.^  The  English  Version  often  puts  "  brook,"  where 
the  reference  is  rather  to  the  valley. 

The  fourth  Hebrew  word,  Gai  ^t),  is  perhaps  less  def- 
inite than  either  of  the  others.    It  seems  to  imply  originally, 

1  Job  xxxix.  10;  Ps.  Ixv.  13;  Cant.  ii.  1;  Job  xxxix.  21;  Judg.  vii.  1  sq.; 
1  Kings  XX.  28,  etc. 

2  Deut.  Yiii.  7;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  4;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  20;  Isa.  xi.  15,  xxx.  28;  Jer. 
xlvii.  2. 

8  Judg,  V,  21;  comp.  iv.  7,  13;  1  Kings  xviii.  40;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9. 
*  1  Kings  xvii.  3,  5,  7. 

5  Gen.  xxvi.  17;  Num.  xxxiv.  5;  Josli.  xv.  4,  47. 


72  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


a  depressed  tract,  or  basin,  where  waters  flow  together  and 
run  off  through  a  valley ;  both  basin  and  valley  being  com- 
prehended under  the  name  Gai.  This  is  precisely  the  char- 
acter of  the  Yalley  of  Hinnom  by  Jerusalem  ;  as  also  of  the 
Valley  of  Jiphthah-el,  now  Wady  'Abilin.  The  word  then 
further  signifies  '  a  low  plain,'  level  tract,  with  adjacent  hills 
or  mountains ;  as  the  Yalley  of  Salt  southeast  of  Aleppo.^ 
Yet  the  word  is  sometimes  employed  for  "  valley"  or  plain  " 
in  general ;  and  is  so  used  in  antithesis  with  hills  and  moun- 
tains.2  The  Seventy  also  render  it  sometimes  by  (pdpay^, 
even  as  spoken  of  the  Yalley  of  Hinnom.^ 

Most  of  the  valleys  of  Palestine  have  in  them  no  perma- 
nent streams  of  water  ;  but  exhibit  merely  the  beds  of  tor- 
rents, which  flow  only  in  the  rainy  season  of  winter ;  and, 
after  the  rains  cease,  soon  dry  up.  In  treating  here  of  val- 
leys, we  include  only  those  of  this  kind  ;  leaving  those  with 
perennial  waters  to  be  described  in  a  future  Section  on  the 
rivers  and  streams  of  the  country.  '  The  only  exception  is 
the  great  valley  of  the  Jordan  ;  which  has  a  character  of  its 
own,  quite  apart  from  the  river  which  flows  through  it. 

I.  VALLEY  OF  THE  JORDAN",  OR  EL-GHOR. 

Extent  and  Connections.  —  This  valley  is  that  portion  of 
the  great  inland  longitudinal  valley  or  chasm,  stretching 
from  Antioch  to  the  Red  Sea,  which  lies  in  Palestine  proper, 
and  is  occupied  by  the  river  Jordan  and  its  three  lakes.  It 
extends  from  the  southern  base  of  Jebel  esh-Sheikh  (Hermon) 
to  the  Scorpion  Glifis  (Akrabbim),  some  eight  miles  south  of 

1  2  Sam.  viii.  13 ;  Ps.  Ix.  2.  See  Russell's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Aleppo,  I.  p.  55.  Maun- 
drell,  p.  213. 

2  2  Kings  ii.  16;  Ezek.  vi.  3,  xxxv.  8. 

3  Isa.  xl.  4,  xxii.  1.   Hinnom,  Josh.  xv.  8. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


73 


the  Dead  Sea.  Its  general  course  is  very  nearly  from  due 
north  to  south.  Its  length,  therefore,  is  the  same  with  that 
of  the  country  itself,  —  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-six 
geographical  miles,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  English 
miles. 

Towards  the  south  this  valley  is  continued  by  the  desert 
Wady  el-'Arabah,  which  extends  from  it,  without  water,  to 
the  Elanitu  Gulf.  On  the  north  the  Jordan  valley  is  con-^ 
nected  with  the  Buka'a,  the  broad  cleft  and  plain  between 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  ;  through  which  flows  the  river 
Litany.  This  connection  is  made  by  the  narrower  Wady  et- 
Teim,  which  enters  the  Jordan  valley  at  its  northwest  corner. 
It  lies  along  the  western  base  of  Hermoil  and  Anti-Lebanon  ; 
being  separated  from  the  Litany  valley  by  a  narrow  ridge  in 
the  south  and  a  range  of  hills  in  the  north,  until  the  two 
meet  and  run  together  opposite  the  great  fountain  of  'Anjar 
in  the  Buka'a. 

Name.  —  The  ancient  Hebrew  proper  name  of  this  valley 
is  altogether  lost  in  the  English  Version  ;  being  there  ren- 
dered, like  several  other  Hebrew  words,  by  the  very  general 
term  *  plain.'  But  the  Hebrew  ^Arahah  {r^'iyj)^  signifying, 
in  general  *  a  desert  plain,  waste.  Steppe,'  ^  is  in  Scripture 
applied  with  the  article  (the  'Arabah)  directly  as  the  proper 
name  of  this  great  valley.^  This  name  strictly  extends  from 
the  lake  of  Tiberias  southwards,  quite  to  the  Red  Sea.  We 
find  the  Hebrew  'Arabah  distinctly  connected  with  the  lake 
of  Tiberias  in  the  north  ;  ^  and  with  the  Red  Sea  and  Elath 
in  the  south ;  *  while  the  Dead  Sea  is  called  the  sea  of  the 

*  Job.  xxiv.  5,  xxxix.  6;  Isa.  xxxv.  1,  6,  xL  3,  etc. 

2  Josh.  xi.  16;  2  Sam.  ii.  29,  i^^.  17;  2  Kings  xxv.  4;  Jer.  xxxix.  4,  lii.  7;  Ezek. 
xlvii.  8,  etc. 

3  Heb.,  Josh.  xi.  2,  xii.  3;  Deut.  iii.  17.  *  Deut.  i.  1,  ii.  8. 

10 


74 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAKD. 


'Arabah.^  At  the  present  day  that  portion  of  the  great  val- 
ley, lying  between  Palestine  proper  and  the  Red  Sea,  retains 
its  ancient  Hebrew  name,  Wady  el-'Arabah. 

The  plural  of  the  same  Hebrew  word  (^Araboth,  constr. 
^Arboth),  apparently  in  its  primary  sense,  is  employed,  when 
certain  '  waste  tracts '  in  the  great  'Arabah  are  spoken  of. 
Thus  we  read  of  '  the  wastes  (^Arboth}  of  Jericho,'  west  of 
the  Jordan  ;  ^  '  the  wastes  (plains  ?)  of  Moab,'  east  of  the 
Jordan,  over  against  Jericho  ;  ^  and  '  the  wastes  of  the  wil- 
derness,' or  uninhabited  district,  apparently  north  of  Jeri- 
cho.^ 

In  a  similar  way  Greeks  and  Romans  spoke  of  this  valley 
as  the  Aulon  (6  AvK^v).^  Eusebius  and  Jerome  describe 
it  as  a  long  valley  or  low  plain,  shut  in  on  both  sides  by 
mountains,  and  extending  from  Lebanon  and  above  quite 
to  the  desert  of  Paran.^  Josephus  speaks  of  it  also  as  the 
Great  Plain,  extending  from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  the  Dead 
Sea."^  The  present  Arabic  name,  el-Ghor^  has  a  like  signifi- 
cation, — '  a  long  valley,  or  low  plain,  between  mountains; ' 
and  Abulfeda  in  the  fourteenth  century  describes  it  as  begin- 
ning at  the  lake  of  Tiberias  and  extending  to  the  Red  Sea.^ 
But  more  usually  the  Ghur  is  understood  as  stretching  be- 
tween the  lake  of  Tiberias  and  the  Scorpion  Cliffs  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea ;  and  is  put  in  a  general  sense  for'  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan.^    We  shall  often  so  use  it  for  convenience. 

1  Josh.  iii.  16,  xii.  3;  Deut.  iv.  49.  .2  Josh.  v.  10;  2  Kings  xxv.  5. 

3  Num.  xxii.  Ij  Dcut  xxxiv.  1,  8.    See  above,  p.  62. 
•  4  2  Sam.  XV.  28,  xvii.  16. 
5  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  21.  9.   Antiq.,  IC.  5.  2.   Comp.  Antiq.,  13.  15.  4. 
^  Onomast.,  Article  Aulon. 

7  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  2,  3.    Antiq.,  12.  8.  5. 

8  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.  (ed.  Kohler),  pp.  8,  9,  and  note  35. 

^Edrisi,  par  Jaubert,  p.  346.  Vita  Salad.,  pp.  221,  222,  etc.  See  Biblical 
Researches,  H.  p.  18G  [H.  p.  599]. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  JORDAN-. 


75 


General  Features.  —  The  northern  portion  of  the  great 
valley  may  properly  be  called  the  Basin  or  Plain  of  the 
Iluleh.  Its  northern  end  is  shut  in,  on  the  eastern  part,  as 
with  a  wall,  by  the  great  southwestern  buttress  of  Jebel  esh- 
Sheikh.  Further  west  the  plain  of  Wady  et-Teim  comes  in 
from  the  north.  The  whole  width  of  the  basin,  between 
B^nias  and  the  western  mountain,  is  about  five  miles.  Its 
length,  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  is  some  sixteen 
miles.  The  western  wall  of  the  basin  rises  steeply  to  the 
plain  of  Kedes,  from  seven  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet ;  ^ 
and  continues  to  rise  further  west  to  the  elevation  of  Safed. 
On  the  east  of  the  basin  the  ascent  is  much  less  steep,  but 
rises  higher ;  the  lake  Phiala  lying  about  two  thousand  six 
hundred  feet  above  the  valley 

The  plain  of  Wady  et-Teim  has  a  very  rapid  descent,  and 
enters  the  basin  of  the  Huleh  by  three  steps  or  offsets  run- 
ning from  northeast  to  southwest,  with  wide  terraces  between. 
Tell  el-Kady  stands  on  the  brow  of  another  similar  step ; 
and  there  are  still  two  others  further  south.  The  line  of 
these  last  three  offsets  runs  more  from  east  to  west.  The 
difference  of  elevation  between  one  plateau  and  another  is 
nowhere  less  than  some  fifty  feet,  and  sometimes  more.  The 
whole  descent  from  the  northern  line  of  the  basin  to  the 
waters  of  the  Huleh,  in  its  southern  part,  a  distance  of  about 
ten  miles,  is  hardly  less  than  six  hundred  feet.  At  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  basin,  is  the  fine  terrace  on  which  Banias 
is  situated. 

A  prominent  feature  of  this  basin  is  its  exuberant  fertility. 

1  Kedes  has  an  elevation  of  thirteen  hundred  and  fifty-four  feet,  while  that  of 
Tell  el-Kady  is  six  hundred  and  forty-seven  feet. 

2  The  elevation  of  Phiala  above  the  sea  is  given  by  Roth  at  three  thousand  one 
hundred  Paris  feet;  Pctermann's  Geogr.  Mitth.,  1859,  p.  290. 


76 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


The  lake  lies  close  to  the  eastern  mountain.  On  the  west 
the  land  is  rolling  and  arable.  North  of  the  lake  is  an  ex- 
tensive marsh,  covered  with  canes  and  flags,  into  which  noth- 
ing can  penetrate.  This  marsh  extends  westward,  and  north- 
westward in  some  places,  along  the  streams  which  enter  it 
from  that  quarter.  Canals  are  also  taken  out  from  the 
branches  of  the  Jordan,  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation  ;  and 
these  give  rise  in  some  places  to  spots  of  mire  and  marsh. 
But  in  passing,  in  May,  1852,  along  the  lower  plain  quite  to 
the  junction  of  all  the  streams  with  the  Jordan,  a  distance 
of  five  or  six  miles  south  of  Tell  el-Kady,  we  found  no  trace 
of  marshy  ground,  although  we  forded  several  of  the  streams. 
The  region  still  merits  the  praise  given  to  it  by  the  Danite 
spies :  "  We  have  seen  the  land,  and  behold,  it  is  very  good, 

 a  place  where  there '  is  no  want  of  any  thing  that  is 

in  the  earth."  ^ 

In  Scripture  the  name  of  this  region  is  Mero?n  ;  and  the 
lake  is  called  the  Waters  of  Merom?  But  the  present  name, 
el-Huleh,  was  current  in  Aramaean  in  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
and  has  been  preserved  to  us  by  Joseplius  in  the  Greek  from 
Ulatha  (OvXd^a).  Augustus  gave  to  Herod  the  districts 
which  had  belonged  to  Zenodorus,  lying  between  Tracho- 
nitis  and  Galilee ;  namely,  Ulatha  and  Paneas,  and  the  region 
round  about."  ^ 

On  the  south  the  basin  of  the  Huleh  is  closed  by  a  broad 
tract  of  uneven  and  mostly  uncultivated  higher  ground, 
which  shelves  down  from  the  base  of  the  loftier  hills  around 
Safed,  and  shuts  up  the  whole  valley  ;  leaving  only  a  depres- 
sion south  of  the  lake,  along  which  the  Jordan  rushes,  in  its 

1  Judg.  xviii.  9,  10.  2  josh.'  xi.  5,  7. 

3  Joseph.  Antiq.,  15.  10.  3 ;  comp.  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  20.  4.  Comp.  also  Heb.  bsiin , 
Sept.  Oij\y  Gen.  x.  23. 


VALLF.Y  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


77 


deep  and  rocky  volcanic  chasm,  to  the  lake  of  Tiberias ;  a 
distance,  in  all,  of  ten  or  twelve  miles.  The  descent  from 
the  upper  to  the  lower  lake,  taking  a  mean  of  the  various 
levels  of  the  latter,  is  not  less  than  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
feet ;  which  compares  well  with  the  slope  of  the  upper  basin. 
On  the  east  the  high  tract  terminates  at  the  basin  of  the 
lower  lake,  where  the  hills  retreat,  leaving  between  them 
and  the  lake  the  fine  alluvial  plain  known  as  the  Batihah, 
equalling  in  its  richness  and  fertility  that  of  the  Huleh.^ 

,0n  the  west,  the  high  tract  above  described  continues  for 
about  twelve  miles  in  breadth,  quite  to  the  plain  of  Gennes- 
areth,  midway  of  the  lake.  It  slopes  down  very  gradually  to 
the  shore  of  the  lake  along  its  northern  part,  and  terminates 
at  the  rocky  promontory  which  juts  down  to  the  water,  and 
forms  the  northern  limit  of  the  plain. 

The  plain  of  Gennesareth,  now  called  el-Ghuweir,  *  Little 
Glior,'  is  described  by  Josephus,  in  glowing  terms,  for  its 
fertility  and  productiveness.^  It  lies  along  the  lake  for  about 
three  miles  in  length  ;  and  extends  back  in  the  arc  of  a 
circle  for  a  mile  or  more,  where  it  is  shut  in  by  hills.  The 
southern  half  is  watered  by  several  streams ;  the  northern 
portion,  now  without  water,  was  anciently  irrigated  by  a 
stream  brought  from  'Ain  Tabighah,  around  the  point  of  the 
promontory.^ 

South  of  the  plain  of  Gennesareth,  the  western  hills  re- 
turn again  to  the  shore  of  the  lake,  and  so  continue  along 
the  Ghor  to  the  junction  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  These  hills, 
however,  are  for  the  most  part  nothing  more  than  the  step, 
or  offset,  from  the  table-land  above,  around  Tabor,  down  to 
the  level  of  the  lake  and  valley.    Assuming  that  this  table- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  410-414  [HI.  pp.  304-310]. 

2  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  8.  3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  344,  348. 


78 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


land  is  not  lower  than  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
whole  descent  to  the  valley  is  not  less  than  some  seven  hun- 
dred feet.  On  the  east  of  the  lake,  also,  the  wall  rises  steeply 
from  the  water,  perhaps  one  thousand  feet  to  the  table-land 
of  Gaulonitis  ;  and  continues  to  rise  gradually,  further  back, 
to  the  higher  plains  of  Hauran. 

Two  or  three  hours  below  the  lake,  and  south  of  the  river 
Hieromax,  the  mountains  of  'Ajlun  rise  up  and  become 
thenceforth  the  eastern  barrier  of  the  Ghor ;  interrupted  only 
by  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok.  As  the  mountains  of 'Ajlun,  of 
Gilead  and  the  Belka,  or  of  old  the  Abarini,  this  range  ex- 
tends on  beyond  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  valley  or  plain  of  Jezreel,  having  reached  the  line  of 
the  Gh5r  at  Beisan,  sinks  down  to  the  lower  valley,  three  or 
four  hundred  feet,  by  a  step  or  offset  of  easy  descent.  A 
portion  of  the  same  higher  plain  stretches  off  south  along 
the  base  of  the  southeastern  sweep  of  the  mountains  of  Gil- 
boa,  which  here  lie  somewhat  back  from  the  usual  line  of  the 
Ghor  ;  and  then  descends  by  steps  to  the  lower  valley. 

South  of  these  mountaius  of  Gilboa,  the  western  hills  are 
lower,  and  broken  up  by  valleys,  for  much  of  the  way  towards 
el-Makhrud,  the  bluff  on  the  north  side  of  Wady  Fari'a. 
Below  Sakut,  spurs  and  ridges  from  these  western  hills  run 
down  to  the  Jordan,  where  they  terminate  in  bluffs ;  the 
river  in  this  part  being  driven  quite  to  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Ghor.i  From  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  Sakut,  the  long  low 
plain  of  the  GhOr,  besides  the  Jordan  meandering  through 
it,  is  full  of  fountains  and  rivulets  ;  and  bears,  in  a  high 
degree,  the  character  of  a  well  watered  and  most  fertile 
region.    Josephus  speaks  of  it  here  as  the  Great  Plain.^ 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  209. 

2  Joseph.  Antiq.,  12.  8.  5,  fxeya  irebiou. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


79 


Below  Sakut  the  valley  continues  more  or  less  contracted 
quite  down  to  el-Makhrud  ;  which  promontory,  for  some  dis- 
tance, lies  between  the  lower  part  of  Wady  el-Fari'a  and  the 
Gh5r.  Then  follows  the  rich  meadow-like  plain  of  the  Fari'a, 
merging  itself  in  that  of  the  Ghc)r,  and  extending,  as  a  lux- 
uriant and  beautiful  tract,  under  the  name  of  el-Kurawa, 
quite  to  the  Jordan.  On  the  southwest  it  skirts  the  base  of 
Kurn  Surtabeh. 

This  imposing  mountain,  stretching  towards  the  southeast 
far  into  the  GhOr,  contracts  it  to  its  narrowest  limits  ;  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  divides  it  into  the  upper  and  lower  Ghor.^ 
Indeed,  a  low  ridge  or  swell  of  land  seems  to  extend  across 
the  whole  valley,  from  the  end  of  Surtabeh  to  the  base  of 
the  eastern  mountains.  Where  the  Jordan  finds  its  way 
through  this  higher  tract,  the  latter  is  broken  up  into  laby- 
rinths of  deep  ravines  with  barren,  chalky  sides,  forming 
pyramids  and  hills  of  various  shapes,  and  presenting  a  most 
wild  and  desolate  scene. ^ 

South  of  Kiirn  Surtabeh  the  character  of  the  plain  of  the 
Ghor  changes,  and  becomes  a  parched  desert ;  except  the 
strip  of  verdure  along  the  immediate  banks  of  the  Jordan, 
and  the  tracts  watered  by  the  copious  fountains  which  spring 
up  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  on  each  side.  The  eastern 
mountains  continue  as  before.  The  western  wall  is  a  series 
of  irregular  and  precipitous  cliffs  ranging  from  eight  hun- 
dred to  twelve  hundred  feet  in  height,  everywhere  naked 
and  desolate.  The  mountains  on  both  sides,  as  they  enclose 
the  Dead  Sea,  become  still  loftier,  and  present,  in  a  still 
higher  degree,  a  scene  of  stern  and  savage  grandeur.  The 

1  See  above,  pp.  48,  49. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  293.  Van  de  Yelde  Mem.  p.  125. 


80 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


brow  of  the  western  cliffs  is  here  about  on  a  level  with  the 
Mediterranean. 

North  of  J ericho,  the  mountains  begin  to  retire  gradually, 
especially  the  western  ;  so  that  at  Jericho  the  breadth  of  the 
valley  is  enlarged  to  ten  or  twelve  miles ;  and  this  continues 
along  the  Dead  Sea,  with  few  exceptions.  Along  the  north- 
eastern side  of  Quarantana  is  a  higher  terrace,  resting  against 
the  western  wall,  and  bordered  in  front  by  a  low  ridge  of 
rock,  extending  towards  'Aujeh.  On  this  terrace  are  the 
fountains  of  Duk.  Indeed,  so  rapid  is  here  the  slope  of  the 
great  valley  from  the  west  to  the  Jordan,  as  well  as  towards 
the  south,  that  the  village  of  J  ericho  is  said  to  have  an  ele- 
vation of  four  hundred  and  seventeen  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.i 

The  length  of  the  Ghor  between  the  lake  of  Tiberias  and 
the  Dead  Sea,  is  fifty-six  and  one  sixth  geographical  miles, 
or  about  sixty-five  English  miles.  The  difference  of  level 
between  the  two  lakes,  according  to  the  United  States  Expe- 
dition, is  663.4  feet.  This  shows  a  descent  of  10.2  feet  in 
every  English  mile. 

Valleys  or  Plains  within  the  Ghor.  —  Besides  the  general 
Hebrew  name  for  the  great  valley,  the  ^Arabah,  we  find  in 
Scripture  other  names  applied  to  different  portions  of  it. 

One  of  these  is  the  term  Kikkar  (^^s?  Gr.  Trejotp^wpo?), 
signifying  '  a  circle,  circuit.'  Hence,  '  the  circuit '  of  the 
Jordan ,2  is  the  region  round  aboiit  Jordan,  the  low  tract  or 
plain  along  that  river,  through  which  it  flows.  In  this  way, 
it  would  seem  to  be  as  comprehensive,  perhaps,  as  the  Gh6r 
itself.  It  is  spoken  of  the  region  chosen  by  Lot,  near  Zoar, 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea;  of  the  plain  around  Jericho  and 

1  Symonds  fixes  Jericho  at  —900;  the  Dead  Sea  is  —1317. 

2  Gen.  xiii.  10,  11;  1  Kings  vii,  46;  Matth.  iii.  5;  Luke  iii.  3. 


TALT.EY  OF  THE  JORDAN. 


81 


further  nortli ;  and  of  tlic  upper  Gliur,  near  Bcisan.^  It  is 
rendered  in  the  English  Version  by  '  plain.' 

Of  the  four  species  of  valley  described  in  the  beginning  of 
this  Section,  the  Bik'ah.  the  ^E/nck,  and  the  Gai  (but  not 
the  Nahal)  are  applied  in  Scripture  to  portions  of  the  GhOr. 

The  great  valley  itself  is  strictly  a  Bik'ah,  ^  cleft ;  '  but  is 
nowhere  so  spoken  of  as  a  whole.  The  term  is  only  applied 
to  tw^o  different  portions  of  it.  The  Bik'ah  (valley)  of  Leb- 
anon under  Hermon^  is  unquestionably  the  plain  or  basin  of 
the  Huleh,  while  the  Bik'ah  (valley)  of  Jericlio  is  the  great 
valley  itself  around  that  city.^ 

The  Ghor  is  likewise  spoken  of  several  times  in  Scripture 
as  an  ^Emek.  The  chief  and  decisive  passage  is  in  the  book 
of  Joshua  ;  where  the  writer,  after  enumerating  the  cities  of 
Gad  in  Mount  Gilead,  goes  on  to  say,  "  and  in  the  valley 
(p?::^;2)  Beth-aram,  and  Beth-nimrah,  and  Succoth,  ....  Jor- 
dan and  border  unto  the  edge  of  the  sea  of  Chinneroth. "  ^ 
All  these  lay  in  the  GhDr.  Once  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
basin  of  the  Huleh,  in  Avhich  the  Danites  built  their  city 
Dan,  in  the  district  of  Beth-Rehob.^  Twice  the  "  valley  of 
Succoth"  is  mentioned;^  and,  if  the  present  Sakut  repre- 
sents the  ancient  city,  the  valley  as  there  contracted  is  prop- 
erly an  ^Eynek.  In  like  manner,  the  "vale  of  Siddim," 
which  was  full  of  slime-pits,  and  "  which  is  [now]  the  Salt 
Sea,"  ^  could  only  have  been  the  fertile  plain  chosen  by  Lot, 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  now  occupied  by  the  shallow  southern 
portion  of  that  sea. 

1  South  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Gen  xiii.  10,  11, 12,  xix.  17,  25,  28,  29.  To  the  plain 
around  Jericho,  etc.,  Deut.  xxxiv.  3;  2  Sam.  xviii.  23;  Neh.  iii.  22;  Matth.  iii.  5; 
Luke  iii.  3.    To  the  upper  Ghor,  1  Kings  vii.  46;  2  Chron.  iv.  17. 

2  Josh.  xi.  17,  xii.  7;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3. 

3  Josh.  xiii.  27.  Judg.  xviii.  28. 

c  Ps.  Ix.  6,  cviii.  7.  «  Gen.  xiv.  3,  8,  10. 

11 


82 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


Two  other  valleys  of  the  kind  (p^t)  are  mentioned  near 
Jericho,  apparently  within  the  GhOr  itself.  One  is  the  valley 
of  Achor  or  '  the  Troubler  ; '  in  which  was  accomplished  the 
terrible  doom  of  Achan  and  his  family,  as  having  troubled 
Israel.^  This  valley  lay  on  the  border  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  which,  after  passing  westwards  from  Beth-hogla, 
a  known  point,  by  Beth-arabah,  to  the  stone  of  Bohan  the 
son  of  Reuben,  apparently  at  or  near  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain, went  up  toward  Debir,  from  the  valley  of  Achor."  ^ 
Hence,  this  valley  is  to  be  sought  in  the  southwest  of  Jericho  ; 
for  Jericho  was  in  Benjamin  ;  and  the  same  border  went  up 
the  mountain  on  the  south  of  the  Nahal,  now  Wady  el-Kelt. 
Jerome  wrongly  places  the  valley  of  Achor  on  the  north  of 
Jericho.^ 

The  second  valley  was  the  site  of  a  town  called  ^Emek- 
Keziz  (Sept.  'AfjueKaa-l^},  English  Version, '  valley  of  Keziz.'  ^ 
It  belonged  to  Benjamin  ;  and  is  mentioned  between  Beth- 
hogla  and  Beth-arabah,  which  were  on  the  southern  border 
of  that  tribe.  It  lay,  therefore,  apparently  not  far  from  the 
same  border,  southeastward  from  Jericho,  in  a  lower  tract 
or  depression  of  the  plain. 

In  a  similar  manner,  the  remaining  species  of  valley,  the 
Gai  (N"^^  t)  is  twice  used  of  portions  of  the  Ghur.  Thus,  '  the 
valley  over  against  Beth-peor,'  where  Israel  was  encamped, 
and  where  Moses  set  the  law  and  the  testimonies  before  the 
people,  is  obviously  a  portion  of  the  same  tract  elsewhere 
called  *  the  plains  of  Moab.'  ^  It  lay  apparently  between  the 
Wadys  Sha'ib  and  Hesban.    Again,  the  valley  of  Salt,  where 

1  Josh  vii.  24,  26.    Symbolically,  Isa.  Ixv.  10;  Hos.  ii.  15. 

2  Josh.  XV.  6,  7.  8  Onomast.,  Article  Achor. 

*  Josh,  xviii.  21. 

*  Deut.  iv.  46,  iii.  29;  corap.  Num.  xxii.  1,  xxxiii.  48,  49;  Deut.  i.  1. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  EAST. 


83 


Amaziali  smote  Edom,  could  only  have  been  at  the  south 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  probably  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Ghur,  at  and  around  the  mountain  of  fossil  Salt.^ 

Another  place  or  tract  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  in  con- 
nection with  the  sojourn  of  Israel  in  the  '  plains  of  Moab.' 
It  is  once  called  Abel-Shittim,  '  meadow  of  Sliittim  ; '  else- 
where usually  only  Shittim  ;  where  Israel  committed  whore- 
dom with  the  daughters  of  Moab  ;  whence  they  sent  spies  to 
Jericho  ;  and  whence  they  broke  up  in  order  to  pass  the 
Jordan  .2  Josephus  calls  the  place  Abila,  and  says  it  was  sit- 
uated sixty  stadia  from  the  Jordan.^  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
describe  Shittim  as  being  adjacent  to  Mount  Peer.*  It  is 
therefore  not  improbable,  that  this  meadow-like  tract  of 
Shittim  was  in  part,  at  least,  identical  with  the  above  '  valley 
(x*;?*)  over  against  Beth-Peor.'  Once  a  '  valley  (^na)  of  Shit- 
tim' is  spoken  of;  which,  if  anything  more  than  symbolical, 
would  seem  to  be  the  ravine  on  the  side  of  the  mountain, 
forming  the  head  of  the  meadow-like  tract  in  the  plain 
below.^ 

II.   THE  GHOR:  SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  EAST. 

The  neighborhood  of  Banias,  in  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  basin  of  the  Huleh,  is  marked  by  the  descent  of  two  im- 
mense ravines  from  Hermon,  and  of  another  smaller  one, 
with  a  brook,  from  Jebel  Heish.  They  are  not  referred  to 
in  Scripture. 

1  2  Kings  xiv.  7;  2  Chron.  xxv.  IL  Another  valley  of  Salt,  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  13;  1  Chron.  xviii.  12),  is  more  probably  that 
which  still  exists  a  few  miles  southeast  from  Aleppo;  Russell's  Nat.  Hist,  of 
Aleppo,  I.  p.  55. 

2  Num.  xxxiii.  49;  Num.  xxv.  1;  Josh.  ii.  1,  iii.  1;  Mich.  vi.  5. 

3  Joseph.  Antiq.,  4.  8.  1;  Ibid.,  5.  1.  1. 

*  Onomast.,  Article  Sattim.  «  Joel,  iii.  18. 


84 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


The  westernmost  is  Wady  el-'Asal,  which  lias  its  beginning 
not  far  south  of  the  village  of  Shib'a,  about  four  hours  N.  N.  E. 
of  Banias.  It  forms  the  mighty  cleft  between  the  upper 
masses  and  summits  of  Hermon.  and  the  lower  western  ridge. 
It  has  no  village  nor  hamlet  in  its  entire  extent :  nor  are 
there  in  it  any  fountains.  This  vast  chasm  seems  to  cleave 
the  mountain  to  its  base,  and  issues  from  it  between  two 
lofty  bulwarks,  taking  its  course  through  the  plain  along  the 
base  of  the  terrace  of  Banias.^ 

The  second  ravine,  Wady  Khushabeh,  begins  at  the  very 
base  of  the  southwestern  peak  of  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  and  ex- 
tends down  southwest  to  the  village  of  Jubbata.  Below  this 
village  it  turns  W.  S.  W.  and  cuts  off  from  the  very  flank  of 
Hermon  the  thin  sharp  ridge  on  which  the  ancient  castle 
stands.  The  ravine,  a  deep  and  almost  impassable  gulf, 
issues  upon  the  terrace  of  Banias,  north  of  the  great  foun- 
tain.   It  has  no  permanent  stream.^ 

The  smaller  valley,  Wady  Za'areh,  has  its  beginning  in 
Jebel  Heish,  at  the  very  base  of  Hermon,  near  Mejdel.  It 
runs  southwest,  with  a  fine  brook,  as  a  pretty,  meadow-like 
valley,  called  Merj  Yafuny,  until  not  far  below  the  lake 
Phiala  it  contracts  into  a  wild  volcanic  glen.  Afterwards, 
sweeping  around  the  end  of  a  ridge,  it  turns  northwest,  and 
descends  to  Banias.  This  valley,  after  reaching  the  base  of 
the  higher  hills,  has  a  peculiar  feature.  It  is  apparently 
covered  over  by  a  sloping  plain,  or  gentle  declivity  of  arable 
land,  stretching  across  it,  through  which,  however,  it  breaks 
down  by  a  very  deep  and  narrow  chasm  in  the  underlying 
volcanic  rock,  with  jagged  perpendicular  sides.  This  chasm 
extends  almost  down  to  Banias,  and  is  so  narrow  as  hardly 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  396,  405. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  401,  403. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  EAST. 


85 


to  be  noticed,  until  one  comes  quite  near  to  it.^  The  brook 
in  the  upper  valley  was  flowing  with  a  full  stream  early  in 
June,  and  at  that  time  reached  Banias.  But  it  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  perennial  throughout. 

In  connection  with  the  victory  of  Joshua  over  Jabin  at 
the  waters  of  Merom,  we  find  in  Scripture  the  name  Mizpeh 
spoken  both  of  a  land  and  of  a  valley  (nrp2).2  The  land  of 
Mizpeh,  it  is  said,  was  under  Hermon  ;  and  Joshua  chased 
the  flying  enemy  as  far  as  to  Sidon  on  the  west,  "  and  the 
valley  of  Mizpeh  eastward."  Hence  it  would  appear,  that 
the  land  of  Mizpeh  (signifying  '  a  lookout,  lofty  place ')  lay 
along  the  lower  southeastern  declivity  of  Hermon,  includuig 
the  higher  portion  of  Jebel  Hcish  ;  and  corresponding  nearly 
to  the  modern  district  known  as  Akiim  el-Bellan.^  These 
limits  comprise  the  two  chief  sources  of  the  river  A'waj,  the 
ancient  Pharpar.  The  valley  of  Mizpeh,  then,  would  proba- 
bly be  the  '  cleft '  or  valley  by  which  one  of  those  streams, 
the  Jennany  or  the  'Arny,  issues  upon  the  lower  country 
towards  Sa'sa'.  In  this  case,  the  valley  of  Mizpeh  belongs 
to  the  territory  of  Damascus,  as  does  the  Bellan  at  the  present 
day ;  and  it  is  treated  of  here  only  because  Scripture  names 
it  in  connection  with  the  Huleh.  At  a  much  later  period, 
this  land  of  Mizpeh  would  seem  very  probably  to  have  been 
included  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Iturea  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans. 

Looking  across  the  lake  of  Tiberias  from  the  west,  the 
high  table-land  along  the  eastern  shore  appears  like  a  wall, 
rising  boldly  from  the  water  ;  and  two  deep  ravines  are  seen 
breaking  down  through  it  to  the  lake.  That  towards  the 
north  is  Wady  Semak,  the  beginnings  of  which  are  in  the 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  398,  400,  405.  2  josh.  xi.  3,  8. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  App.,  pp.  137,  139. 


86 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


northeast  near  the  end  of  Jebel  Heish.  The  southern  one, 
nearly  opposite  Tiberias,  is  Wady  Fik,  having  its  head  near 
the  town  of  that  name.^  Whether  the  valley  of  the  Passetv- 
gers  on  the  east  of  the  lake,  spoken  of  by  Ezekiel,  and  also 
called  the  valley  of  Hamon-Gog  (multitude  of  Gog)  ,2  had 
anything  to  do  with  either  of  these  ravines,  or  was  perhaps 
purely  symbolical,  is  quite  uncertain. 

About  two  hours  below  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  comes  in  the 
river  and  valley  of  the  Hieromax  ;  draining  the  whole  of  the 
vast  plain  of  Hauran.  This  will  be  described  under  the  head 
of  Rivers.^  One  of  the  branches  of  this  stream,  a  winter- 
brook  (xetficippoos) J  near  Raphon,  a  place  not  far  from  the 
city  Karnaim,  is  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha.  It  was  there 
that  Timotheus  and  his  pagan  host  were  discomfited  by 
Judas  Maccabaeus.* 

An  hour  or  more  south  of  Pellex,  the  rather  shallow  Wady 
Yabis  comes  down  from  the  top  of  the  mountain.  It  merits 
notice  here,  as  bearing  the  name  of  the  SiUciei\tJabesh-Gilead; 
which  stood  apparently  upon  its  southern  side,  at  a  place  of 
ruins  now  known  as  ed-Deir.^ 

In  like  manner,  after  another  hour  and  a  half,  the  Wady 
el-Hcmar  descends  from  the  mountain.  One  of  its  higher 
branches  bears  the  name  of  Wady  Mahneh,  from  a  place  of 
ruins  upon  it  of  the  same  name,  Mahneh.  This  lies  not  far 
nortli  of  'Ajlun  ;  and  the  name  corresponds  to  the  ancient 
Mahanaim.^ 

Next  north  of  the  Jabbok  is  Wady  'Ajliln,  descending 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  343.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  279  sq.  Biblical  Researches, 
n.  p.  386  [III.  p.  20'2]. 

2  Ezek.  xxxix.  11,  15.  3  See  Chap.  H.,  Sect.  L 

4  1  Mace.  V.  37,  39,  40,  42. 

5  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  318,  319. 

6  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  38-5.   Biblical  Researches,  1811,  App.,  p.  1G6. 


SIDE  TALLEYS  FROM  THE  EAST. 


87 


steeply  to  the  GliGr  ;  having  its  heads  above  'Ajlun.  There 
are  fine  fountains  in  it ;  but  their  streams,  in  summer,  do 
not  reach  the  Jordan.  This  valley  may  perhaps  be  the 
Bithro?i,  which  Abner  ascended  to  reach  Mahanaim.^  —  On 
its  northern  side,  on  one  of  the  high  cliffs  of  the  mountain, 
stands  the  strong  fortress  Kul'at  er-Rubud,  forming  a  very 
conspicuous  object,  and  seen  from  a  great  distance.^ 

The  valley  (^"r)»  of  the  Jahhok  once  called  the  river  of 
Gad,^  which  breaks  through  the  mountain  range,  will  be  de- 
scribed under  the  Section  on  Rivers.* 

Nearly  opposite  Jericho  two  Wadys  descend  to  the  Jordan 
from  the  high  plain  at  the  top  of  the  mountain.  The  north- 
ern one  is  Wady  Sha'ib,  coming  from  the  vicinity  of  es-Salt, 
in  a  southwest  course.  In  the  plains  below,  it  passes  by  a 
site  of  ruins  called  Ximrin,  the  Ximrah  and  Bcth-niynrah  of 
Scripture.  There  are  also  fountains,  corresponding  to  the 
icaters  of  XI m rim.''  A  strip  of  verdure  marks  the  course  of 
the  Wady  through  the  plain  to  where  it  meets  the  Jordan, 
about  E.  by  N.  of  Jericho. 

The  other  valley  is  Wady  Hesban,  coming  down  from  the 
neighborhood  of  that  ancient  city  to  the  Jordan,  about  E.  S.  E. 
of  Jericho.  Its  course  too  in  the  plain  is  marked  by  a  line 
of  verdure,  which  encloses  the  brook.  The  latter  comes 
from  the  tract  west  of  Heshbon ;  but  whether  it  is  perennial, 
is  not  known. ^ 

We  have  already  treated  of  one  ^  valley  over  against  Beth- 

1  2  Sam.  ii.  29.    See  above,  pp.  68,  69. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  445  [II.  p.  121], 

3  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5.  4  See  Chap.  II.,  Sect.  I. 

5  Xum.  xxxii.  3,  36;  Josh,  xiii,  27.  Onoraast.,  Article  Xemra.  Ximrim,  Isa. 
XV.  6;  Jer.  xlviii.  34.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  5')l  [II.  p.  279].  Seetzen,  Reisen, 
II.  p.  318. 

6  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  5.51  [II.  p.  279].    Seetzen,  I.  p.  407,  11.  p.  323. 


88 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Peor,'  towards  the  west,  in  the  Ghor.^  Another  valley,  de- 
scribed in  the  same  manner,  was  the  site  of  the  lone  and 
unknpwn  grave  of  Moses,  after  his  decease  on  Mount  Nebo.^ 
Beth-Peor  was  situated  nearly  midway  of  the  mountain-slope,^ 
and  this  valley  '  over  against '  it  was  probably  towards  the 
south,  having  its  beginning  under  or  near  Nebo,  and  descend- 
ing through  a  wild  unvisited  region. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  two  considerable 
streams  come  down  through  deep  and  rugged  chasms,  the 
Zerka  Ma'm  and  the  Mojib ;  the  former  containing  the  hot 
baths  of  Callirrhoe,  and  the  latter  being  the  river  Arnon  (^ns) 
of  Scripture.  From  Kerak,  the  ancient  Kir  Moab,  there  de- 
scends a  valley,  Wady  ed-Dera'ah,  with  a  permanent  brook, 
issuing  upon  the  peninsula.  Still  further  south,  and  forming 
the  southern  boundary  of  Moab,  is  the  Wady  el-Ahsy,  with  a 
perennial  stream,  the  ancient  Zered  (^n:).  All  the  above 
valleys  are  treated  of  in  the  Section  on  Rivers.^  Other 
streams  appear  on  the  maps,  but  they  all  become  dry  in 
summer. 

One  other  valley  or  plain  on  the  east  remains  to  be  con- 
sidered. When  Israel,  on  their  approach  to  Palestine,  passed 
up  through  the  desert  on  the  east  of  Moab,  having  crossed 
the  head  branches  of  the  Arnon,  they  turned  from  the  desert 
to  MaUanah,  Nahaliel,  and  Banioth  (heights).^  Thence  their 
further  course  was,  according  to  the  Hebrew,  "  from  Bamoth 
to  the  valley  or  plain  (s^'l^n)  that  is  in  the  country  of  Moab, 
the  top  of  Pisgah,  and  it  looketh  towards  the  wilderness ; " 
that  is,  the  'Arabali.  Elsewhere  it  is  said,  that  they  en- 
camped at  Dihon  and  Almon-Diblathaim  and  in  the  moun- 


1  See  above,  p.  83. 
3  See  above,  p.  Of), 
s  Num.  xxi.  13,  10,  19. 


2  Deut.  xxxiv.  5,  6;  conip.  xxxii.  50. 
*  See  Chap.  H.,  Sect.  I.  ii. 


SroE  VALLEYS  FEOM  THE  WEST. 


89 


tains  of  Abarim,^  This  Gai  therefore  would  seem  to  be  no 
other  than  the  high  plain  along  the  summit  of  the  eastern 
mountains,  in  which  Dibon  was  certainly  situated.  It  might 
properly  be  called  a  Gai ;  since  on  the  west  are  eminences 
forming  the  crest  of  the  Abarim ;  and  at  some  distance  on 
the  east  is  a  chain  of  hills  towards  the  desert.^ 

III.   THE  GHOR:  SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 

The  northernmost  valley  which  enters  the  basin  of  the 
Huleh  from  the  northwest,  is  that  of  the  Derdarah,  the  stream 
coming  from  Merj  'Ayun.  This  stream,  though  not  strictly 
perennial,  will  be  described  among  the  branches  of  the  upper 
Jordan.3 

Opposite  to  the  lake  of  the  Huleh,  the  great  Wady  Hen- 
daj  breaks  down  through  the  western  mountaiTi  by  a  deep 
and  narrow  chasm  ;  the  steep  banks  of  which  are  several 
hundred  feet  high.  It  drains  the  region  around  el-Jish 
( Giscala)  and  further  west.  In  May,  1852,  a  fine  brook  was 
flowing  in  it ;  which,  however,  did  not  appear  to  be  peren- 
nial.* 

Three  valleys  issue  upon  the  plain  of  Gennesareth  from 
the  adjacent  hills.  The  northernmost  is  Wady  el-'Amud, 
which  drains  the  region  around  Safed  ;  its  bed  was  dry  in 
May,  1 852.  The  next,  which  also  enters  the  plain  from  the 
west,  is  the  Wady  er-Rubudiyeh,  the  continuation  of  Wady 
Sellameh,  which  comes  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  plain 
of  Rameh.^    A  fine  brook  flowing  in  it  in  spring  and  early 

1  Num.  xxL  20;  comp.  xxxiii.  45-47. 

2  Barckhardt,  Syria,  p.  366.   Comp.  above,  p.  60. 

3  See  Chap.  II.,  Sect.  1. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  364,  365. 
«  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  80,  81,  344. 
12 


90 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


summer  is  nearly  used  up  in  irrigating  the  southern  part  of 
the  plain.  The  third  valley  is  Wady  el-Hamam,  coming  in 
from  the  southwest.  It  has  its  beginning  in  the  hills  north- 
west of  Hattin,  and  descends  to  the  plain  of  that  village ; 
which  itself  is  but  a  terrace  or  step  between  the  high  table- 
land further  south  and  the  lower  tract  along  the  lake ;  and 
is  skirted  by  a  ridge  along  its  northeastern  side.  Nearly 
opposite  the  village  the  Wady  breaks  down  through  this 
ridge  by  a  deep  and  singular  chasm.  The  sides  of  the  upper 
or  southwestern  portion  of  the  chasm  are  precipitous  rock, 
five  or  six  hundred  feet  in  height.  The  length  of  the  chasm 
is  over  a  mile ;  its  course  about  northeast ;  and  it  becomes 
gradually  wider  towards  the  lower  end.  About  midway  of 
the  passage,  there  are  caverns  in  the  cliffs  on  each  side  ; 
though  fewer  on  the  left.  On  the  right  several  of  these 
caverns  are  walled  up  in  front ;  and  these  are  now  called 
Kul'at  Ibn  Ma'an.  Further  down,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
chasm,  are  many  smaller  excavations  in  the  upper  perpen- 
dicular cliffs.^  The  bed  of  the  Wady,  below  the  chasm, 
turns  to  the  lake  near  Mejdel  (Magdala).  On  the  southeast- 
ern bank  of  Wady  el-Hamam,  just  above  where  it  enters  the 
chasm,  is  a  site  of  ruins,  now  called  Irbid.  This  is  the  Beth- 
Arbel  of  Scripture,  and  the  Arbela  of  Josephus  ;  near  which 
the  historian  describes  caverns  in  the  face  of  a  precipice, 
which  was  occupied  by  robbers  as  a  fastness,  from  which  they 
were  dislodged  by  Herod.^ 

South  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Hieromax,  the  Wady  el-Bireh  descends  from  the  west  to  the 
Jordan.    It  drains  the  country  on  the  east  and  south  of 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  312,  343. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  342,  343.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  1. 16.  2-4.  Antiq., 
14.  15.  4,  5.   Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  398  sq.  fHL  pp.  280,  281]. 


SroE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


91 


Mount  Tabor ;  and  is  formed  by  two  main  brandies,  both 
deep  ;  one  coming  from  Khan  et-Tujjar  on  the  northeast  of 
the  mountain  ;  the  other,  Wady  Sherar,  having  its  begin- 
nings in  the  plain  south  of  Tabor  and  around  Endor.  The 
united  valley  breaks  down  to  the  Ghor  by  a  deep  and  sharp 
chasm. ^ 

We  now  come  to  the  great  scriptural  valley  {p^^.)  of  Jez- 
reel?  This  extends  from  the  plain  of  Jezreel  or  Esdraelon 
eastward  ;  and  is  indeed  the  middle  one  of  the  three  great 
arms,  into  which  that  jDlain  divides  itself  towards  the  east. 
The  valley  lies  between  the  mountains  of  Little  Hermon  on 
the  north,  and  Gilboa  on  the  south.  Its  beginning,  the 
dividing  line  or  watershed  in  the  great  plain,  is  near  the 
villages  Fuleh  and  'AfCileh.  From  this  point  it  sinks  rapidly 
along  the  western  end  of  Little  Hermon,  until  it  turns  E.  S.  E. 
along  that  mountain.  Its  southwestern  bank,  in  this  upper 
part,  is  already  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high  at  the  village 
of  Zer'in  (Jezreel) ;  and  is  a  steep  and  rocky  declivity.  The 
mountains  on  each  side  extend  to  the  Ghor,  being  about  an 
hour  apart.  Jezreel  in  the  west,  and  Bethshean  in  the  east, 
were  in  sight  of  each  other,  at  the  opposite  ends  of  this  great 
avenue. 

This  valley  forms  a  beautiful  meadow-like  plain,  from  two 
to  three  miles  in  breadth  by  about  fifteen  in  length,  watered 
by  the  great  fountain  of  Jezreel,  the  Tubania  of  the  crusaders, 
now  called  'Ain  Jalud.^  There  are  also  other  fountains  in 
the  valley  lower  down ;  and  the  stream,  as  the  Jalud,  con- 
tinues down  to  the  Ghor.  The  valley  is  very  fertile,  and  is 
mostly  cultivated,  even  to  the  top  of  the  northern  hills  east- 

1  Later  Biblical  Eesearclics,  pp.  340,  341. 

2  Josh.  xvii.  16;  Judj?.  vi.  33;  Ilosca  i.  5. 

3  1  Sam.  xxix.  1.   Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  323  [IIL  p.  168J. 


92  Pin\SICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

ward  of  Little  Hermon.  The  southern  side  is  everywhere 
shut  in  by  the  bare  rocky  wall  of  Gilboa.^  Beisan  stands 
just  upon  the  brow  of  the  descent  or  offset  by  which  this 
upper  plain  drops  down  to  the  lower  level  of  the  Ghur. 
Towards  the  south,  a  portion  of  the  upper  plain  stretches  off 
along  the  eastern  front  of  the  mountains  of  Gilboa.^  It  was 
in  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  that  Gideon  discomfited  the  Midian- 
ites  ;  and  here  too  was  fought  the  battle  between  Israel  and 
the  Philistines,  in  which  Saul  and  Jonathan  were  slain  on 
Mount  Gilboa.^  This  valley  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  fur- 
nish a  direct  and  easy  passage  from  the  Jordan  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

South  of  the  mountains  of  Gilboa  and  of  Sakut  comes 
in  Wady  Malih  (Salt)  ;  so  called  from  a  place  of  salt 
springs  found  upon  it.  It  begins  near  Teyasir  (^Asher)-,^  and, 
passing  down  eastward  for  a  time,  afterwards  winds  off 
among  the  low  hills  and  ridges,  which  here  constitute  the 
west  side  of  the  Ghor.  South  of  the  low  bluff  on  which  Sa- 
kut lies,  Wady  Malih  reaches  the  Jordan  as  a  broad  valley 
with  a  deep  channel.^ 

The  next  important  valley  is  Wady  el-Fari'a ;  which  has 
its  remotest  head  in  the  plain  of  the  Mukhna  near  Nabu- 
lus,  of  which  it  is  the  drain.  Another  head  begins  north- 
west of  Tulluzah,  and  is  the  main  branch.  The  former, 
commencing  some  distance  south  of  Nabulus,  and  passing 
along  on  the  east  of  the  low  ledge  which  is  before  the  little 
plain  of  Salim,  afterwards  lies  close  to  the  eastern  mountain, 
and  sweeping  around  its  northwestern  flank,  breaks  down  to 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  338,  339. 

2  Sec  above,  p.  77. 

3  Judg.  vi.  33,  vii.  1  sq.;  1  Sam.  xxix.  1,  xxxi.  1-10. 

4  Josh.  xvii.  7. 

«  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  306,  309. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


93 


the  level  of  the  Fari'a  by  a  deep  and  narrow  chasm,  along 
which  the  rocky  strata  are  singularly  dislocated.  Below  are 
several  mills.  The  main  branch  comes  down  further  north, 
with  a  fine  stream.  Still  another  valley  and  stream  come  in 
from  the  northwest,  at  Burj  el-Fari'a,  a  small  ruined  tower 
on  a  low  bluff ;  and  here  too  is  a  mill,  with  immense  deposits 
from  the  water  on  the  rocks.  The  streams  unite  some  dis- 
tance further  down  the  valley.  The  general  direction  of  the 
valley  is  about  E.  S.  E.  In  one  part  it  is  a  beautiful  basin 
of  meadow  land,  two  or  three  miles  in  diameter,  with  the 
stream  meandering  through  it.  Below  this  meadow  the 
valley  is  shut  in  by  a  spur  from  the  northern  hills  and  a 
projecting  rock  on  the  south,  forming  a  narrow  gorge  or  door, 
still  an  hour  from  the  line  of  the  Ghor.  The  extreme  east- 
ern point  of  the  northern  hills,  forming  the  bluff  in  the  angle 
between  the  Fari'a  and  the  Ghor,  is  called  Makhrud.  Be- 
tween this  and  Kurn  Surtabeh  the  broad  plain  of  the  Fari'a 
merges  in  that  of  the  Ghor,  here  known  as  the  Kurawa.^ 

On  the  other  side  of  Kurn  Surtabeli,  which  projects  to- 
wards the  southeast  far  into  the  Gliur,  between  it  and  the 
next,  and  lower  promontory  of  the  western  mountain,  called 
el-Muskurah,  a  broad  bay  or  offset  extends  up  from  the  Ghor. 
Into  this  offset  descend  two  deep  and  precipitous  gorges  (the 
northern  one  is  Wady  Bursheh),  which  unite  below,  and  form 
Wady  Fusail,  from  a  site  of  ruins  of  that  name,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  ancient  Phasaelis.  In  the  northern  chasm, 
nearly  an  hour  above  the  present  village,  is  a  fine  fountain, 
'Ain  Fusail ;  the  water  of  which  flows  to  the  village,  and  is 
there  absorbed  by  irrigation.^ 

The  deep  gorge  of  Wady  el-'Aiijeh  enters  the  Glior  south 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  301,  304.  t 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  292,  293.   Van  de  Velde  Memoir,  p.  122. 


94 


rHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


of  el-Muskurah.  It  is  known  further  up  as  Wady  es-Sar 
mieh  and  Wady  Muhamch  ;  and  drains  the  region  above  and 
around  Kefr  Malik.^ 

The  next  valley  is  Wady  en-Nawa'imeh.  Commencing  in 
the  northeast  of  Bethel,  it  passes  between  Deir  Duwan  and 
Rimmon  as  Wady  el-Mutyah  or  el-'Asas,  and  breaks  down  to 
the  Ghor  as  a  deep  and  precipitous  gorge.  Along  this  gorge 
we  ascended  in  1838  to  Deir  Duwan  and  Bethel  from  Jericlio. 
The  course  of  the  Wady  lies  across  the  northern  part  of  the 
terrace  at  the  foot  of  tlie  mountain,  just  north  of  the  foun- 
tains of  Duk.2 

Directly  back  of  Jericho  lies  the  wild  glen  by  which  the 
great  Wady  Kelt  enters  the  Gh6r.  This  valley  drains  the 
whole  region  east  of  Jerusalem  as  far  north  as  to  Bethel.  It 
receives  many  branches  ;  as  Wady  es-Suweinit,  beginning  be- 
tween Bethel  and  el-Bireh,  and  passing  down  between  Geba 
and  Michmash  ;  Wady  Farah,  having  its  head  south  of 
Ramah  ;  and  other  shorter  Wadys  further  south.  These  all 
unite  in  the  high  table-land  above,  and  form  the  Kelt,  in 
which,  however,  there  flows  no  permanent  stream.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  deep  gorge  by  which  it  issues  from  the 
mountains,  the  road  to  Jerusalem  climbs  an  'Akabah  (pass) 
of  seven  or  eight  hundred  feet,  in  order  to  gain  the  higher 
region  above.  On  this  road,  and  within  the  gorge,  is  seen  a 
deserted  tower,  now  called  KakSn.^ 

•  The  stream  of  this  valley  in  winter,  with  that  of  'Ain  es- 
Sultanor  Elisha's  fountain,  which  flows  to  it,  is  doubtless 
"  the  water  of  Jericho,"  which,  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Jordan,  marked  the  point  of  departure  for  the  border  between 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  201,  292. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  \.  pp.  444,  568,  572  [H.  pp.  120,  303,  309]. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  L  pp.  557,  558  [IL  p.  288J. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


95 


Benjamin  and  the  sons  of  Joscpli ;  namely,  "  from  Jordan  by 
Jericho,  at  the  water  of  Jericho  on  the  east,  to  the  wilder- 
ness," etc.,1  and  the  'river'  (^ns)  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
as  on  the  border  between  Judah  and  Benjamin,  where  this 
border  ascends  the  mountain.^  Wady  Kelt  would  seem 
also,  with  more  probability  than  any  other  valley,  to  be  the 
'  brook'  (bn)  Cherith,  where  Elijah  hid  himself  and  was  fed 
by  ravens.  The  prophet  being  at  Samaria,  the  residence  of 
Ahab,  was  directed  to  turn  "  eastward  "  to  the  Cherith,  "that 
is,  towards  Jordan."^     Josephus,  speaking  appa- 

rently according  to  the  natural  tradition,  says,  that  the 
prophet  went  to  "  the  parts  towards  the  south  "  (ra  tt/do?  vo- 
Tov  fieprj^.^  In  the  indefiniteness  of  the  ancients  as  to  points 
of  compass,  both  of  the  above  specifications  may  be  taken  as 
referring  to  the  southeast;  and  are  thus  reconciled.  Further, 
the  names  Cherith  and  Kelt  are  made  up  of  corresponding 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  consonants ;  the  main  difference  being 
the  change  of  r  to  Z,  which  is  not  unusual.^  We  thus  have, 
in  favor  of  the  proposed  identity,  this  close  resemblance 
of  names  and  a  probable  location.  Christian  tradition  was 
early  at  fault  in  respect  to  the  Cherith.  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  place  it  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  and,  many  cen- 
turies later,  the  crusaders  found  it  in  Wady  Fusail.^  But 
in  the  latter  case  Josephus  could  hardly  speak  of  the  prophet 
as  going  from  Samaria  towards  the  south. 

In  the  time  of  Saul,  while  the  Philistines  were  encamped 

1  Josh.  xvi.  1;  comp,  xviii.  12,  13.  2  Josh,  xv,  7. 

3  1  Kings  xvii.  3-7.  Not  before  nor  east  of  Jordan;  comp.  Gen.  xviii.  26,  xix. 
28;  Judg.  xvi.  3. 

*  Joseph.  Antiq.,  8.  13.  2. 

*  Gesen.  Hcb.  Lex.,  letter  ^,  Comp.  also  the  name  of  the  place  "PivoKoKovpa 
and  'PtvoJ/coupa. 

6  Brocardus,  c.  7,  p.  178.   Marin.  Sanut.,  p.  247. 


96 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


at  Miclimash,  and  Saul  and  Jonathan  with  about  six  hundred 
men  lay  at  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  the  Philistines  sent  out 
three  companies  of  spoilers  :  one  towards  the  north,  to  Ophra 
(Taijibeh) ;  one  towards  the  west,  to  Beth-lioron  ;  and  a  third 
by  "  way  of  the  border  that  looketh  towards  the  valley  of 
Zeboim  towards  the  wilderness."  ^  As  Saul  and  his  men 
lay  at  Gibeah,  southwest  of  Michmash,  the  course  of  this  last 
company  was  probably  towards  the  south  or  southeast ;  and 
the  '  border '  spoken  of  was  that  between  Benjamin  and 
Judah.  The  valley  of  Zeboim,  or  Hyenas,  then,  woul4 
seem  to  have  been  an  open  valley  lying  in  that  direction 
from  Michmash,  and  forming  one  of  the  head-branches  of 
Wady  Kelt.  A  town  Zeboim  is  also  named  in  Scripture  as 
belonging  to  Benjamin ;  but,  judging  from  the  places  with 
which  it  is  enumerated,  it  must  have  been  situated  further 
west  than  Ramah,  perhaps  in  or  near  the  plain  of  Lydda.^ 
Of  course  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  above  valley. 

We  come  now  to  valleys  more  frequently  mentioned  in 
Scripture  than  any  other  ;  namely,  those  round  about  the 
Holy  City.  They  are  the  '  brook  '  (^n3)  Kidron  on  the  north 
and  east  of  the  city,  usually  called  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat ; 
and  the  valley  of  Hinnom  on  the  west  and  south.  Upon 
the  broad  and  elevated  promontory  within  the  fork  of  these 
two  valleys,  lies  Jerusalem.^ 

The  Kidron  in  Hebrew  is  a  Nalial  (^ri_3)  ;  which  in  the 
Seventy,  the  New  Testament,  and  Josephus,  is  rendered 
*  winter  brook '  (^etfiappo^')  ;  and  Josephus  speaks  of  it  also 
as  a  '  ravine  '  (^cpdpay^)      It  has  its  beginning  just  by  the 

1  1  Sam.  xiii.  15-18.  2  Xeh.  xi.  34. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  258  sq.  [I.  p.  380  sq.]. 

*  Hcb.  and  Sept.,  2  Sam.  xv.  23;  1  Kings  ii.  38,  etc.;  John  xviii.  1.  Joseph. 
Antiq.,  8.  1.  5.   Also  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  5.  2.  3,  Ibid.,  5.  4.  2. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


97 


tombs  of  the  Judges,  about  half  an  hour  N.  by  W.  of  the  city, 
in  a  slight  depression  through  which  one  begins  to  descend 
into  the  great  Wady  Beit  Hanina  which  goes  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  region  here,  around  the  head  of  the  Kidron, 
is  very  rocky,  and  full  of  excavated  sepulchres  ;  and  these 
continue  with  more  or  less  frequency  on  both  sides  of  the 
valley  all  the  way  down  to  Jerusalem.  The  valley  runs  for 
fifteen  minutes  directly  towards  the  city  ;  it  is  here  shallow 
and  broad,  and  in  some  places  tilled,  though  very  stony. 
It  then  turns  nearly  east,  almost  at  a  right  angle,  for  about 
ten  minutes,  passing  on  the  north  of  the  tombs  of  the  Kings. 
Here  it  is  still  shallow ;  and  is  about  two  hundred  rods  dis- 
tant from  tlie  present  city.  It  then  bends  again  to  the  south, 
and  following  this  general  course  passes  between  the  city 
and  the  mount  of  Olives. 

Opposite  the  northern  part  of  the  city  and  above,  the  val- 
ley spreads  out  into  a  basin  of  some  breadth,  now  tilled,  and 
having  plantations  of  olive  and  other  fruit  trees.  Further 
down,  the  valley  contracts  and  descends  rapidly ;  and  the 
steep  western  side  becomes  steeper  and  more  and  more  ele- 
vated above  the  bottom.  At  the  gate  of  St.  Stephen  this 
elevation  is  one  hundred  feet ;  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
Haram-area  it  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  On  the  east 
the  mount  of  Olives  rises  higher,  but  is  not  so  steep.  At  tho 
tomb  of  Absalom,  so  called,  the  bottom  of  the  valley  has  be- 
come merely  a  deep  gully,  the  narrow  bed  as  of  a  torrent, 
from  which  the  hills  rise  directly  on  each  side.  Beneath  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  Haram,  the  valley  makes  a  sharp  turn 
for  a  moment  to  the  right,  and  then  passes  down  as  before. 
This  part  is  the  narrowest  of  all ;  it  is  here  a  mere  ravine 
between  mountains.  The  corner  of  the  Haram-area  over- 
hangs this  part ;  the  angle  of  the  wall  standing  upon  the 

13 


98  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


very  brink  of  the  steep  declivity.  Still  further  south  the 
western  hill  declines  towards  the  south  as  rapidly  as  the 
valley  itself,  the  latter  opens  gradually,  and  receives  from 
the  west  the  Tyropoeon  with  the  rill  from  Siloam.  Below 
this  it  becomes  broader,  and  is  tilled  ;  and  just  below  the 
point  where  the  valley  of  Hinnom  comes  in,  is  the  well  of 
Job  or  Nehemiah,  the  ancient  En-rogel.^ 

For  about  nve  hundred  yards  below  this  well,  the  valley 
continues  its  course  S.  S.  TV.,  and  is  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred yards  wide.  It  is  here  full  of  olive  and  fig  trees  ;  and 
is  in  most  parts  tilled  and  sown  with  grain.  It  then  turns 
S.  75°  E.  for  about  half  a  mile  ;  after  which  it  takes  a  more 
southern  course  for  a  time,  and  passes  on  as  a  very  deep, 
wild,  rocky  chasm,  about  E.  S.  E.  to  the  Dead  Sea,  which  it 
enters  just  south  of  Ras  el-Feshkhali.  On  the  right  bank 
of  this  chasm,  somewhat  more  than  half  way  towards  the 
Dead  Sea,  is  situated  the  celebrated  convent  of  Mar  Saba, 
founded  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century.  From  it  the 
valley  is  called  in  that  part  and  above,  by  the  Arabs,  Wady 
er-Rahib,  '  Monks'  valley  ; '  while  near  to  the  Dead  Sea  it  is 
known  as  Wady  en-Nar,  '  Fire  valley.'  ^ 

At  the  present  day  the  '  brook '  Kidron  of  Scripture  is 
nothing  more  than  the  dry  bed  of  a  winter  torrent.  No 
stream  flows  in  it  now,  except  occasionally  in  the  rainy 
season  of  winter,  when  after  heavy  rain  the  waters  rush  down 
into  it  from  the  neighboring  hills,  and  form  (though  rarely) 
a  torrent.  Nor  is  there  any  evidence  that  there  was  anciently 
more  water  in  it  than  at  present.^ 

The  valley  (x'l^)  of  Hinnom  is  called  in  Scripture  also  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  268-272  [L  pp.  396-400]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  272,  382,  531  [L  p.  402,  H.  pp.  26,  249]. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  272  [I.  p.  402]. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


99 


valley  of  the  son  or  sons  of  Hinnom.^  It  has  its  beginnings 
in  a  shallow  depression  or  basin  west  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  city ;  in  the  midst  of  which  basin  is  the  upper  pool  or 
reservoir,  usually  filled  with  water.^  On  the  west  a  swell  of 
land  divides  it  from  the  valley  in  which  is  the  convent  of 
tlie  Cross  ;  on  the  south  is  a  low  hill ;  and  beyond  it  the  val- 
ley or  plain  of  Rephaim.  From  the  basin  the  open  stony 
valley  runs  E.  S.  E.  nearly  to  the  Yafa  gate  of  the  city ;  the 
depth  of  the  valley  at  this  point  being  about  forty-five  feet 
lower  than  the  gate.  It  here  turns  south,  and  lies  along 
under  the  steep  western  declivity  of  Zion,  quite  to  its  south- 
western corner.  Here  only  a  low  ridge  or  swell  separates  it 
from  tlie  plain  of  Rephaim.  Higher  up,  nearly  opposite  the 
south  wall  of  the  modern  city,  the  whole  breadth  of  the  valley 
is  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  reservoir,  the  lower 
pool.^ 

At  the  southwest  corner  of  Zion  the  valley  sweeps  around 
to  the  east,  and  descends  with  great  rapidity,  between  Zion 
and  the  opposite  hill  in  the  south,  to  the  valley  of  the  Kidron ; 
which  it  enters  about  one  hundred  yards  above  the  well  of 
Job.  The  hill  south  of  Hinnom  is  steep,  rocky,  and  full  of 
sepulchres.  The  southeastern  corner  of  Zion,  between  the 
two  valleys,  runs  down  and  out  in  a  low  point.  At  the  junc- 
tion of  the  two  valleys  there  is  an  open  oblong  plot,  reaching 
from  the  gardens  below  Siloam  nearly  to  the  wall  of  Job, 
and  comprising  also  the  lower  portion  of  Hinnom.  Its 
breadth  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards  or  more.  The  west- 
ern and  northwestern  parts  of  this  plot  are  in  like  manner 

1  Josh.  XV.  8;  Jer.  xix.  2,  6;  2  Kings  xxiii.  10,  Keth. 

2  Isa.  vii.  3.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  238,  326  [I.  pp.  352,  483]. 
8  Isa.  xxii.  9.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  327  [I.  p.  485]. 


100 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


occupied  by  gardens ;  many  of  which  are  on  terraces,  and 
receive  a  portion  of  the  waters  of  Siloam.^ 

In  these  gardens,  lying  partly  within  the  lower  end  of  the 
valley  of  Hinnom,  Jerome  fixes  the  place  of  Tophet,  where 
the  Jews  practised  the  horrid  rites  of  Moloch  and  Baal, 
and  "  burned  their  sons  and  their  daughters  in  the  fire."  ^ 
Tophet  was  not  the  name  of  the  valley  ;  but  was  merely  a 
place  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom.^  It  was  probably  in  allusion 
to  this  detested  and  abominable  fire,  that  the  later  Jews  ap- 
plied the  name  of  this  valley,  Gehenna  (tisn-'a,  yeev^a),  to 
denote  the  place  of  future  punishment,  or  the  fires  of  hell ; 
and  thus  it  was  also  used  by  our  Lord  and  others  in  the  New 
Testament.* 

In  the  basin  at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
west  of  the  city  and  near  the  upper  pool,  there  was  anciently 
a  fountain  called  Gihon.  A  '  brook '  (^ns)  appears  to  have 
flowed  from  it  down  to  the  valley.  This  fountain  Hezekiah 
caused  to  be  stopped ;  and  brought  its  waters  "  down  to  the 
west  side  of  the  city  of  David."  ^  This  was  done  for  the 
purposes  of  military  defence.  The  Son  of  Sirach  also  tells 
us,  that  "  Hezekiah  strengthened  his  city,  and  brought  in 
water  into  the  midst  of  it ;  he  dug  with  iron  into  the  rock 
and  built  fountains  for  the  waters."  ^  From  all  this  it  would 
seem  to  follow,  that  Hezekiah  covered  over  the  fountain  of 
Gihon,  and  brought  its  waters  into  the  city,  and  probably  to 
the  temple,  by  a  subterranean  channel.    This  inference  has 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  272-274  [1.  p.  402^05]. 

2  Jer.  vii.  31;  2  Kings  xxiii.  10;  corap.  Jer.  xxxii.  35  with  Jer.  xix.  5. 

3  Ibid.   Also  Jer.  vii.  32,  xix.  6,  11-14.   So  '  the  valley,'  Jer.  ii.  23. 

4  Matth.  V.  22;  xvlii.  9;  Mark  ix.  43,  45;  James  iii.  6,  etc. 

*  2  Chron.  xxxii.  4,  30;  comp.  xxxiii.  14,  Heb.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  346 
[L  p.  512]. 
6  Sirac  xlviii.  17  [19],  Cod.  Alex. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FKOM  THE  WEST. 


101 


been  strengthened  by  an  aqueduct  hewn  in  the  rock,  discov- 
ered on  Zion.  Indeed,  it  is  not  impossible,  that  some  connec- 
tion may  yet  be  detected,  between  the  intermitting  fountain 
in  the  valley  below  the  Haram,  and  some  channel  now 
unknown  bringing  down  the  water  of  the  ancient  Gihon  to 
the  temple.  It  was  to  Gihon,  or  more  probably  to  summer 
gardens  below  it,  that  Solomon  was  brought  down  from  Zion, 
in  order  to  be  proclaimed  king.^ 

When  Abraham  was  returning  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
kings,  the  king  of  Sodom  went  out  to  meet  him  "  at  the 
valley  (p^?)  of  Shaveh,  which  is  the  King^s  dale  ;  "  and  of 
Absalom  it  is  related,  that  in  his  lifetime  he  erected  for 
himself  a  monumental  pillar  in  the  same  King's  dale.^  Jo- 
sephus,  speaking  doubtless  according  to  national  tradition, 
says  that  this  monument  was  two  stadia,  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
distant  from  Jerusalem.^  Now  a  valley  at  this  distance  from 
the  city  is  found  at  three  points,  and  no  more.  One  is  the 
upper  part  of  the  Kidron,  where  it  runs  first  southeast  and 
then  east ;  the  distance  being  reckoned  from  the  northern 
(third)  wall  in  the  time  of  Josephus.  Another  is  the  head 
of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  around  the  upper  pool.  The  third 
is  the  Kidron  below  the  well  of  Job.  The  first  of  these  is 
still  marked  by  the  elaborate  tombs  of  the  Judges  and  many 
other  ancient  sepulchres  ;  the  remaining  two  have  none. 
The  monument  erected  by  Absalom  was  apparently  in  the 
nature  of  a  sepulchral  column  or  cippus ;  "for  he  said,  I 
have  no  son  to  keep  my  name  in  remembrance ; "  ^  and  a 
natural  place  for  it  would  be  in  the  upper  Kidron,  among 
other  sepulchral  monuments  and  sepulchres.    The  rock-hewn 

1  1  Kinfrs  i.  33,  38,  45.   Joseph.  Antiq.,  7.  14.  5. 

2  Gen  xiv.  17;  2  Sam.  xviii.  18.  3  Joseph.  Antiq.,   7. 10,  3. 
^  2  Sam.  xviii.  18;  comp.  Gen.  xxxv.  20. 


102 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


tomb  now  known  as  Absalom's,  in  the  Kidron  valley  below 
and  opposite  the  ancient  temple,  cannot  here  come  into  the 
account,  for  the  distance  does  not  agree  ;  and  its  form  is  that 
of  the  rock  tombs  of  Petra,  belonging  to  a  period  later  than 
the  Christian  era.^  The  King's  dale,  then,  was  the  upper 
Kidron  ;  and  here  the  King  of  Sodom  met  Abraham  return- 
ing from  the  north  along  the  usual  road,  to  reach  his  tents 
near  Hebron.^  If  now  the  King's  dale  of  Abraham  and  that 
of  Absalom  be  the  same,  it  follows  conclusively,  that  the 
Salem  of  Melchizedek  was  Jerusalem  ;  and  not,  as  Jerome 
supposes,  a  Salem  a  few  miles  south  of  Scythopolis.^ 

The  prophet  Joel  speaks  of  the  Valley  (P^>)  of  Jehoshapliat, 
as  the  place  where  God  will  judge  the  heathen  for  their  op- 
pression of  the  Jews.*  This  would  seem  to  be  merely  a  sym- 
bolical valley,  in  allusion  to  the  signification  of  the  name, 
Jehovah  judg-eth.  There  is  not  the  slightest  historical  ground, 
either  in  the  Scriptures  or  in  Josephus,  for  connecting  it 
with  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  But  it  was  very  early  so 
connected ;  for  already  in  the  fourth  century  we  find  Euse- 
bius  and  others  speaking  of  the  Kidron  as  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat.^  On  a  like  slender  foundation  rests  the  popular 
belief  current  among  Jews,  Romanists,  and  Muhammedans, 
that  the  last  judgment  will  be  held  in  this  valley.^  Yet  after 
tliis  long  usage  of  the  name,  there  is  now  no  valid  reason 
why  we  should  not  still  so  employ  it. 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  349-352  [I.  pp.  518-521].  2  Gen.  xlv.  13. 

3  Hieron.  Ep.  ad  Evang.,  73.  Opera  (ed.  Martianay),  H.  p.  573.  Later  Bib- 
lical Researches,  p.  333. 

4  Joel  iii.  [iv.]  2,  12. 

5  Onomast.,  Article  Codas.  Cyrill  in  Joel  iii.  [iv.]  2,  12.  Itin.  Hieros.,  p.  594 
(ed.  "Wess.). 

6  Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  355.  Quaresmius,  IL  p.  156.  Mejr.  ed-Din  in  Fundgr. 
des  Or.,  H.  p.  381.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  269  [I.  p.  396]. 


SIDE  VALLEYS  FROM  THE  WEST. 


103 


The  prophet  Isaiah  speaks  of  Jerusalem  itself  as  valley 
(N'l^)  of  Vision;  and  Jeremiah  also  once  called  it  simply  the 
Valley  (P^?)  The  temple  at  Jerusalem,  where  Jehovah  was 
enthroned ,  was  properly  the  seat  of  vision  ;  but  why  the  city 
is  addressed  as  a  valley,  is  not  so  clear.  Moriah,  on  which 
the  temple  stood,  was  separated  from  the  higher  western  hills 
Zion  and  Akra,  by  a  depression  or  valley  within  the  city. 
Did  perhaps  the  valley  of  tlie  prophets  refer  to  the  fact,  that 
from  those  higher  points  the  temple  appeared  lower,  and  as 
if  in  a  valley  ?  Or  did  it  refer  to  the  more  general  feature, 
that  the  whole  city  lies  upon  the  upper  slope  of  the  Kidron, 
and  descends  rapidly  towards  that  valley  ? 

Another  valley  mentioned  in  Scripture  is  also  to  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Kidron.  The  prophet  Amos,  to  express  the 
extent  of  the  land  from  north  to  south,  gives  it  as  "  from  the 
entering  in  of  Hamath  unto  the  river  of  the  wilderness."  ^ 
Another  sacred  writer,  presenting  the  same  idea,  says  "  from 
the  entering  of  Hamath  unto  the  sea  of  the  plain,"  or  Dead 
Sea.^  In  the  first  case  it  is  the  valley  (^^i)  of  the  ^Arabah; 
in  the  second,  it  is  in  like  manner  the  sea  of  the  ^  Arahah  ; 
each  being  the  southern  limit.  The  former,  therefore,  would 
seem  to  be  the  Kidron,  which  enters  the  Dead  Sea  not  far 
from  its  northern  end. 

There  remains  a  single  valley  named  in  Scripture  south  of 
the  Kidron.  It  is  the  valley  of  Beracliah,  or  of  Blessing,  ren- 
dered memorable  by  the  rejoicings  of  the  Hebrews  after  the 
victory  of  Jehoshaphat.^  It  was  in  the  "  wilderness  of  Te- 
koa."  At  the  present  day  there  exists  west  of  Tekoa  a  ruined 
town  on  the  west  side  of  a  broad  open  valley  running  north ; 
and  both  the  town  and  the  valley  in  that  part  bear  the  name 


1  Isa.  xxii.  1,  5;  Jer.  xxi.  13. 
8  2  Kings  xiv.  25. 


2  Amos  vi.  14. 

*  2  Chron.  xx.  26;  comp.  v.  20-23. 


104 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAKD. 


of  Beraikutj  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Berachah.  The 
valley  afterwards  tarns  southeast ;  is  then  called  Wady  Khan- 
zireh  ;  and  appears  to  run  to  Wady  Khureitun.^ 

Along  the  western  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  south  of  the 
Kidron,  several  great  valleys  break  down  to  the  shore  by 
deep  and  wild  gorges  ;  but  as  none  of  them  are  alluded  to 
in  Scripture,  it  is  not  essential  to  describe  them  here.  Such 
are  the  Wadys  Ta'amirah,  Derejeh,  el-Ghar  or  'Areijeh,  el- 
Khubarah,  es-Seyal,  etc. 

IV.   VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 

The  valleys  of  the  western  slope,  along  the  coast,  present 
in  their  upper  portions  the  same  general  features  as  those 
already  described.  Having  their  commencement  in  the 
mountains  and  hill-country,  they  take  their  course  some- 
times for  a  long  distance  through  the  same,  as  deep  chasms ; 
and  then  break  through  and  issue  upon  the  western  plains 
by  narrow  gorges,  like  those  along  the  Ghor.  In  the  plains 
they  are,  for  the  most  part,  only  shallow  water-beds  ;  by 
which  the  waters  of  the  rainy  season  are  drained  off  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  northernmost  valley  to  be  mentioned  here  is  found  in 
the  hill-country  southeast  from  Tyre.  Three  valleys,  con- 
verging from  different  points,  come  together  in  the  plain 
around  the  village  of  Rumeish  ;  one  from  the  northeast  near 
Bint  Jebeil;  another  from  the  S.  S.  E.  from  around  Kefr 
Bir'im  and  Sa'sa'  ;  and  the  third  from  the  southwest.  From 
Rumeish  the  plain  or  broad  valley  extends  N.  N.  W.  for  half 
an  hour,  when  it  contracts ;  but  afterwards  expands  again 
into  a  smaller  plain  south  of  Dibl ;  after  which  it  again  con- 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  275.   Wolcott  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  43. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


105 


tracts.  This  valley  is  known  as  Wady  el-'Ayun  ;  and  the 
direct  road  from  Rumeish  to  Tyre  passes  along  it  as  far  as 
to  its  junction  with  Wady  Seribbin  coming  from  the  north- 
east from  towards  Tibnin.  Here  the  valley  turns  southwest, 
along  the  southeastern  base  of  the  outermost  ridge.  After 
following  this  course  for  some  time,  it  again  turns  between 
west  and  northwest,  issues  from  the  mountains  by  a  deep 
and  narrow  gorge,  and  as  Wady  el-'Azziyeh  skirts  the  north- 
ern base  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea  near  Ras  el-Abyad.^ 

Between  this  promontory  and  Ras  en-Nakurah  further 
south,  a  shorter  valley,  Wady  Hamul,  breaks  down  through 
the  mountains  by  a  narrow  gap  to  the  coast.^ 

The  great  valley  of  the  wild  region  back  of  Ras  en-Naku- 
rah and  the  plain  of  '  Akka,  is  the  Wady  el-Kurn.  It  drains 
a  large  tract  of  country  ;  having  one  of  its  two  main  heads 
above  Beit  Jenn  in  the  southeastern  angle  of  the  mountains ; 
and  the  other  in  the  little  plain  of  Bukei'a  further  west. 
The  valley  forms  everywhere  a  deep  and  wild  chasm  ;  and 
is  described  by  the  Arabs,  in  true  oriental  style,  as  so  deep 
and  precipitous  as  to  be  impassable,  so  that  even  eagles  con- 
not  fly  across  it.  On  an  isolated  cliff  in  this  valley  is  situated 
the  fortress  of  Kurein,  the  ^Montfort  of  the  crusaders  ;  now  in 
ruins  and  almost  inaccessible.  The  great  chasm  by  which 
the  valley  breaks  down  to  the  western  plain  and  sea,  not  far 
south  of  en-Nakurah,  is  visible  from  'Akka.^ 

The  western  part  of  the  fine  plain  of  Ramah,  in  the  hill- 
country  east  of  'Akka,  is  drained  by  a  head  branch  of  Wady 
Sha'ab.  It  breaks  through  the  ridge  south  of  the  plain  by  a 
gap  ;  and  is  there  joined  by  another  branch,  coming  from 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  G2,  G7,  C8. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  05. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  GG,  7G,  77,  90. 

14 


106  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAKD. 

Sukhnm  and  'Arrabeh.  The  valley  descends  rapidly,  and 
becomes  deep  and  narrow,  but  is  not  rocky.  The  hills  sink 
down  gradually  as  it  enters  the  plain ;  through  which  it 
passes  on,  as  a  meadow-like,  marshy  depression,  to  the  river 
Na'man,  the  ancient  Belus,  near  its  mouth.  The  perma- 
nent sources  of  the  latter  are  in  the  plain.  Wady  Sha'ab 
has  usually  no  water.^ 

The  next  important  valley  is  Wady  'Abilin,  which  there  is 
good  reason  for  regarding  as  the  scriptural  valley  of 
Jiplithah-el  on  the  border  of  Zebulun  and  Asher.^  This  val- 
ley has  its  main  head  in  the  fertile  basin  east  of  the  sightly 
village  of  Kaukab,  lying  northeast  from  'Abilin.  Into  this 
basin  there  descends  from  the  east  a  short  open  Wady,  which 
separates  the  hill  Deidebeh  overhanging  Kefr  Menda  from 
the  line  of  hills  further  north.  Just  beyond  the  watershed 
at  the  head  of  this  Wady  is  the  site  of  Jefat,  the  ancient  Jota- 
pata  ;  and  from  it  a  valley  runs  down  southeast  to  the  plain 
el-Biittauf  at  Cana  ;  thus  in  a  manner  isolating  the  hill  Dei- 
debeh.  From  the  basin  above  mentioned,  Wady  'Abilin 
sweeps  off  south  and  southwest  around  the  high  tract  on 
which  Kaukab  stands ;  and  turning  northwest  passes  down 
on  the  north  of  'Abilin  to  the  western  plain  ;  where  it  goes 
to  the  river  Na'man.  The  northern  border  of  Zebulun  was 
carried  from  Hemmon,  now  Rummaneh,  in  the  plain  el- 
Buttauf,  on  the  north  to  Hannathon ;  "  and  the  outgoings 
thereof  are  in  the  valley  of  Jiphthah-el."  Again,  the  eastern 
border  of  Asher,  coming  from  Beth-dagon  south  of  Carmel, 
"  reacheth  to  Zebulun  and  to  the  valley  of  Jiphthah-el."  It 
seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the  line  of  hills  between  Sukh- 
nin  and  Kefr  Menda  was  the  northern  boundary  of  Zebulun 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  78,  85,  87,  88,  103. 

2  Josh.  xix.  14,  27. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


107 


ill  this  part ;  and  that  the  valley  of  Jiphthah-el.  was  no  other 
than  the  great  Wady  'Abilin,  which  has  its  beginning  in 
those  hills  near  Jefat.  There  may  be  also  some  correspon- 
dence between  the  Hebrew  Jiphtah,  the  Greek  Jotapata,  and 
the  Arabia  Jefdt ;  inasmuch  as  the  Greek  term  came  through 
the  corrupt  dialect  of  the  Galilaeans.  Hence,  the  valley 
may  have  given  its  name  to  the  place,  or  vice  versa} 

The  western  part  of  the  plain  of  Zebulun,  el-Buttauf,  is 
drained  by  a  water-bed  called  Wady  Bedawiyeh  ;  which,  still 
in  the  plain,  is  joined  by  another,  draining  the  tract  of  country 
east  of  Seffurieh  and  around  Tur'an  .nearly  to  Lubieh.  It 
passes  off  as  a  narrow  plain  in  a  southwesterly  course,  among 
low  hills  ;  and  further  down  unites  with  Wady  Seffurieh, 
coming  from  the  great  fountain  south  of  that  place,  with  a 
fine  brook.  At  some  distance  below  it  takes  the  name  of 
Wady  Melik,  becomes  narrower,  and  winds  among  higher 
hills,  until  it  joins  the  Kishon,  just  as  the  latter  enters  the 
plains  of  'Akka.  The  stream  in  it  is  understood  not  to  be 
permanent.^ 

The  '  river '  ( ^ns)  Kishon  itself  passes  in  a  northwest  course 
from  the  plain  of  Esdraeloii  to  that  of  'Akka  by  a  valley 
between  Carmel  and  the  hills  opposite.  See  in  Chap.  H. 
Sect.  I. 

South  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  the  hills  for  a  time  are 
lower  ;  and,  though  there  are  many  valleys  running  in 
various  directions,  there  are  none  at  first  which  demand 
notice  here.  The  fine  plain  around  Dothan  and  Ya'bud  is 
drained  in  that  part  by  Wady  Wesa',  passing  off  west  on 
the  south  of  Ya'bud.  Further  down  it  takes  the  name  of 
Wady  Abu  Nar ;  and  after  a  large  bend  to  the  south  enters 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  105,  107. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  110,  112,  113. 


108 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  western  plain  on  the  north  of  Jett ;  and  goes  to  the  sea 
as  the  river  Abu  Zabura,  south  of  Caesarea.^ 

Another  valley,  Wady  Mussin,  coming  down  from  the 
plain  of  Fendekumieh,  with  a  narrow  and  deep  channel,  was 
said  to  join  the  Wady  Abu  Nar  in  the  western  plain.  Others 
regard  it  as  uniting  with  the  next  valley,  Wady  Sha'ir.^ 

Then  follows  the  great  Wady  Sha'ir,  coming  from  Nabulus. 
The  narrow  valley  between  mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  in 
which  that  city  lies,  has  a  gradual  ascent  for  half  an  hour 
from  the  plain  of  the  Mukhna  to  the  town,  situated  directly 
upon  the  watershed,  beyond  which  the  valley  descends 
towards  the  northwest.  Hence  all  the  waters  coming  down 
from  Gerizim  into  the  city,  and  all  the  fountains  on  that  side, 
flow  off  northwestward  ;  and  the  stream  continues,  even 
in  summer,  for  several  miles  down  the  valley.  The  chan- 
nel skirts  the  southern  and  western  sides  of  the  basin  of 
Samaria,  receiving  all  the  waters  drained  from  the  adjacent 
regions  ;  and  passes  out  in  the  northwest  by  a  deep  valley 
between  high  hills  near  Ramin.  The  bottom  of  this  part  of 
the  valley,  as  also  the  hills,  are  in  many  parts  cultivated  ; 
and  there  are  in  the  valley  many  very  old  olive  trees.  At 
'Anebta,  an  hour  below  Ramin,  are  several  mills,  driven  in 
winter  by  the  stream.  Down  this  valley,  by  'Anebta  and 
Tul  Keram,  passes  the  ordinary  camel  road  from  Nabulus  to 
Ramleh  and  Yafa  ;  which,  though  circuitous,  affords  an 
easier  descent  and  ascent  of  the  mountain  than  any  other. 
This  valley  sweeps  round  in  the  plain  on  the  north  of  Kal- 
unsaweh  ;  and  is  marked  on  the  recent  maps  as  turning 
southwestward  to  the  sea  at  the  marshes  near  the  village  of 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  121,  122. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  121,  125.   Van  de  Velde's  Map. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


109 


Failiik.  There  is  no  permanent  stream  in  its  lower  part, 
nor  at  the  mouth. ^ 

South  of  Nabulus  and  Wady  Sha'ir,  the  valleys  which 
drain  the  western  slope  and  brow  of  the  mountains  and  enter 
the  plain,  as  far  south  as  to  the  parallel  of  Jerusalem,  all 
converge  in  the  plain,  and  run  to  the  river  'Aujeh,  north  of 
Yafa.  Not  one  of  them  goes  by  itself  to  the  sea.  Among 
the  northernmost  of  these  valleys  is  Wady  'Azzun,  having  its 
head  above  the  village  of  that  name  ;  and  winding  by  a  deep 
and  narrow  course  to  the  western  plain,  which  it  enters 
north  of  Hableh.  The  Wady  here  bends  to  the  northwest, 
and,  passing  very  near  to  Kilkilieh  on  the  north,  then  sweeps 
round  to  the  S.  S.  W.  and  leaves  Kefr  Saba  QAntipatris) 
just  on  the  right.  Thence  its  water-bed  passes  down,  as  a 
depression  in  the  rich  and  beautiful  plain,  to  join  the  'Aujeh. 
This  plain  is  separated  from  the  level  tract  immediately 
along  the  coast  by  a  more  elevated  plateau,  or  range  of  low 
swells,  occasionally  rising  into  low  hills.  The  Wady  from 
the  mountains  is  doubtless  the  '  river '  which  Josephus  men- 
tions as  flowing  by  Antipatris.^ 

The  next  valley  is  the  deep  and  rugged  Wady  Kanah, 
having  its  beginning  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plain  Miikh- 
na,  near  Nabulus,  which  it  serves  to  drain ;  the  northern 
part  of  the  same  plain,  as  we  have  seen,  being  drained  by 
Wady  el-Fari'a  and  the  Jordan.  Wady  Kanah  passes  out 
from  the  plain  as  a  deep  valley  through  the  western  hills, 
between  the  villages  Kuza  and  'Ain  Abus.    Near  Deir  Estieh 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  125-128.  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  II.  p.  255. 
Wildenbruch  in  Monatsh.  der  Ges.  fiir  Erdk.,  1844, 1,  p.  232,  and  Table  V.  Van 
de  Velde's  Map. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  135,  136,  138.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  16.  5.  2;  comp. 
13.  5.  1. 


110 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


it  becomes  wide  and  is  cultivated  ;  here  several  fountains 
spring  up  in  it.  Further  west  it  resumes  its  dark  and  rug- 
ged character ;  and  enters  the  plain  half  an  hour  south  of 
Hableh,  where  it  bears  the  local  name  of  Wady  Zakur,  from 
a  ruined  village  on  its  northern  side.  It  runs  off  just  south 
of  Jiljulieh  to  the  water-bed  in  the  plain  ;  and  so  goes  to  the 
'Aujeh.i  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  but  that 
this  is  the  '  river  '  (^n:)  Kanah  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  .which 
was  the  boundary  in  this  part  between  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh.  From  the  point  where  the  valley  leaves  the  mountains, 
the  border  between  these  tribes  probably  was  drawn  directly 
to  the  sea,  at  or  near  Arsuf.^ 

The  next  important  valley  has  its  head  at  'Akrabeh,  several 
miles  east  of  the  Miikhna,  at  a  watershed  in  the  plain  below 
that  village.  From  that  point,  one  Wady  goes  eastward  to 
the  Jordan  ;  and  the  other,  as  Wady  Bir  Jenab  runs  west- 
ward, by  Kubalan  and  south  of  the  Mtikhna,  and  descends 
to  the  western  plain  as  Wady  Ribah,  about  half  an  hour 
north  of  Mejdel  Yaba.  In  the  plain  it  joins  the  water-bed 
from  Xefr  Saba,  and  so  goes  to  the  ' Aujeh.^ 

Next  follows  the  great  Wady  Belat,  called  also  in  its  lower 
part  Wady  Kurawa,  from  a  village  of  that  name  on  the  north 
of  it.  This  valley  drains  a  large  extent  of  the  mountain 
region.    It  has  three  main  head-branches.   One  begins  south 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  273  [HI.  p.  93].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  135, 

139.  See  the  next  note  but  one. 

2  Josh.  xvi.  8,  xvii.  9. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  272  [HI.  p.  92].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  139, 

140,  296.  The  above  account  of  Wady  Ribah  as  also  of  Wady  Kanah  and  "Wady 
Belat  or  Ktirawa,  is  founded  either  on  personal  observation  or  on  information 
collected  by  Dr.  Eli  Smith  and  myself  in  1838  and  18-52,  and  given  to  the  public 
in  the  Biblical  Researches.  The  Map  of  Van  de  Velde  (1859)  represents  them 
somewhat  differently;  on  what  authority  is  not  known. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


Ill 


of  Jufna  (Gophna) ;  and  runs  for  a  time  in  a  northerly  course, 
receiving  smaller  Wadys  from  the  east ;  it  is  here  deep,  but 
open  and  cultivated.  After  turning  northwest  it  receives  a 
large  and  deep  branch,  coming  down  on  the  north  side  of 
Sinjil  and  Jiljilia,  and  having  its  head  in  the  plain  of  Tur- 
mus  'Aya  south  of  Shiloh.  The  third  branch  has  its  head 
just  in  the  north  of  Shiloh,  passes  down  through  the  little 
plain  of  Lubban,  and  as  Wady  Lubban  breaks  through  the 
western  hills  by  a  deep  notch,  and  goes  to  join  the  Belat  near 
Kurawa.  The  united  valley  issues  from  the  mountains  ten 
minutes  south  of  Mejdel  Yaba,  as  Wady  Kurawa  ;  and  pass- 
ing down  on  the  south  of  the  great  fountain  at  Ras  el-'Ain, 
goes  to  the  southern  side  of  the  'Aujeh.^  Northwest  of 
Gophna  there  is  a  shorter  branch  Wady,  which  runs  west- 
ward just  south  of  Tibneh  QTimnali),  and  joins  the  Belat 
below.  Across  the  valley  from  Tibneh  is  the  hill  of  Gaash  ; 
and  this  and  other  deep  valleys  round  about  are  probably 
the  '  brooks '  (^n:)  of  Gaash ^  so  named  in  Scrip ture.^ 

Another  large  valley,  draining  a  wide  extent  of  the  western 
slope  and  brow  of  the  mountains,  passes  down  along  the 
plain  on  the  east  and  north  of  Ludd  (Lydda),  and  so  north- 
west to  the  river  'Aujeh.  It  is  here  known  as  Wady  Ludd  ; 
or  also  sometimes  as  Wady  Muzeiri'ah.  Where  the  Sultana, 
or  great  caravan  road  crosses  it  north  of  Lydda,  it  is  spanned 
by  a  long  bridge  of  three  or  more  arches,  one  of  the  best  in 
Palestine  ;  showing  that  although  dry  in  summer,  yet  in  the 
rainy  season  a  torrent  of  water  rushes  along  its  bed.  One 
head  branch  of  this  valley  has  its  beginning  beyond  Ram 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  2G3-2GG,  271  [III.  pp.  77-82,  90].  Later  Biblical 
Researches,  p.  140.    See  the  preceding  note. 

2  2  Sam  xxiii.  30;  1  Chron.  xi.  32.  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  pp.  484,  496.  See 
above,  pp.  41,  42. 


112 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Allah,  not  far  from  the  southernmost  head  of  Wady  Belat, 
and  passing  down  as  a  rugged  chasm  north  of  that  village, 
issues  from  the  mountain  north  of  the  lower  Beth-horon  ; 
but  whether  it  there  turns  south  to  the  plain  of  Beit  Nuba, 
or  goes  on  directly  west  to  join  Wady  Ludd  above  the  bridge 
just  described,  is  not  certainly  determined.^  The  main  trunk, 
however,  of  the  valley,  above  Ludd,  is  Wady  'Atallah,  coming 
from  the  southeast  from  the  fine  plain  of  Beit  Nuba.  Into 
that  plain  descends  Wady  Suleiman,  which  drains  the  west- 
ern portion  of  the  plain  around  Gibeon  ;  and  up  which  as- 
cends the  ordinary  camel  route  from  Ramleh  and  Lydda  to 
Jerusalem.  From  the  western  part  of  the  plain  of  Beit  Nuba, 
Wady  'Atallah  passes  off  about  W.  N.  W.  to  the  foot  of  the 
ridge  on  which  stands  the  village  of  Kubab.  Here  it  receives 
Wady  'Aly  from  the  left ;  and  bending  more  to  the  N.  N.  W. 
proceeds  through  the  rolling  plain  to  Lydda,  where  it  becomes 
Wady  Ludd.2 

Wady  'Aly  has  its  head  just  on  the  brow  of  the  mountain 
back  of  Saris ;  and  receiving  apparently  other  like  Wadys 
from  the  right,  descends  steeply  to  the  region  of  hills  below ; 
and  sweeping  to  the  south  around  the  river  Latron,  goes  to 
the  'Atallah  on  the  north  of  Kubab.  Along  this  valley  passes 
up  the  mountain  the  direct  road  from  Ramleh  to  Jerusalem 
by  Kubab,  Saris,  and  Kuriet  el-'Enab  ;  less  circuitous  but 
more  difficult  than  the  route  by  Wady  Suleiman.^ 

Scripture  makes  mention  of  three  valleys,  which  can  only 
be  referred  to  some  of  the  branches  of  the  great  Wady  at 
Lydda ;  apparently  to  those  near  the  mountains.    Thus  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  453,  H.  p.  250  [II.  p.  133,  III.  p.  59].  Later  BibUcal 
Researches,  p.  142. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  143-145. 

8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  156,  157,  160. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


113 


vallry  (p-cr)  of  Ajalon  is  certainly  identified  with  the  plain 
of  Beit  Nuba  (Merj  Ibn  'Omeir)  by  the  circumstance  tliat 
Yalo  QAjalon)  still  lies  upon  the  hills  on  its  southern  border. 
This  plain  connects  Wady  Suleiman  with  Wady  'Atallah. 
Joshua,  pursuing  the  five  kings  from  Gibeon,  looked  down 
from  the  heights  of  the  upper  Beth-horon  upon  this  beautiful 
vale,  and  pronounced  the  sublime  command :  Sun,  stand 
thou  still  upon  Gibeon ;  and  thou  moon,  in  the  valley  of 
Ajalon."  ^  Another  is  the  valley  or  plain  (s^Vi?^)  ^/ 
once  named  by  Nehemiah  ;  Ono,  of  .course,  being  in  or  near 
the  plain.  But  the  town  Ono  is  several  times  mentioned ; 
and  is  always  coupled  with  Lod  (Lydda).^  It  follows  that 
Ono  was  not  far  distant  from  Lydda  ;  and  as  the  word  Bik'ah 
signifies  '  a  plain  shut  in  by  mountains,'  the  plain  of  Beit 
Nuba  would  seem  to  correspond  both  in  respect  to  form  and 
nearness  to  Lydda.  And  as  there  is  no  other  known  plain 
in  the  region  of  Lydda  which  does  thus  correspond,  we  may 
assume  the  plain  of  Ono  as  lying  around  Beit  Nuba.  Men- 
tion is  twice  made  of  the  valley  {i^^^)  of  Craftsmen  (^Hara- 
shini) ;  which  also  is  directly  coupled  with  the  place  Ono.'^ 
It  must  therefore  have  been  near  Ono  ;  and  may  have  been 
a  side  valley  opening  into  the  plain  of  Beit  Nuba. 

The  next  estuary  south  of  the  river  'Aujeh  and  Yafa,  is 
the  Nahr  Rubin  at  Yebna,  the  ancient  Jahneh  or  Jamnia. 
The  name  Rubm  comes  from  a  Wciy  on  the  hills  north  of 
Yebna.  The  stream  is  not  permanent.  In  October,  1817, 
Irby  and  Mangles  found  the  bed  nearly  dry  above  the  bridge ; 
but  below  there  was  a  fine  sheet  of  water.    In  October,  1857, 

1  Josh.  X.  10-12.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  145. 

2  Valley  of  Ono,  Neh.  vi.  2.  Ono,  the  town,  Neh.  vii.  37,  xi.  35;  Ezra  ii.  33; 
1  Chr.  viii.  12. 

3  Neh.  xi.  35;  1  Chron.  iv.  14. 

15 


114 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Tobler  found  no  appearance  of  water. ^  The  Wady  comes 
from  the  southeast  through  the  plain,  from  'Ain  Shems,  the 
ancient  Beth-shemesh.  It  passes  that  place  on  the  north 
side,  as  a  broad  and  fertile  plain,  at  the  foot  of  the  project- 
ing ridge  on  which  Sur'ah  QZorah)  is  situated.  Here  and 
throughout  the  plam  it  is  known  as  Wady  Surar.  This  plain 
of  the  Sui'ar  extends  up  east  and  northeast  far  into  the  moun- 
tains ;  the  projecting  ridge  of  Zorah  lying  in  front  and  enclos- 
ing it  on  the  west.  The  upper  portion  of  this  enclosed  plain 
is  almost  wholly  shut  m  by  lofty  precipitous  ridges.  Into 
the  northeastern  part  of  this  recess,  just  east  of  the  village 
Yeshu'a  (ancient  Jeshua),  descends  the  deep  and  narrow 
chasm  of  Wady  Ghurab  ;  and  further  south,  with  a  high  in- 
tervening ridge,  the  still  deeper  and  wilder  chasm  of  the 
great  Wady  Isma'il  coming  from  Kulonieh.  The  large  water- 
courses of  these  two  Wadys  unite  towards  'Ain  Shems  to 
form  Wady  Siirar  ;  and  the  channel  runs  down  on  the  north 
of  that  ruin.  The  plains  thus  shut  in,  are  beautiful  and 
fertile.2 

These  two  great  valleys,  Wady  Isma'il  (or  Isma'in)  and 
Wady  Ghurab,  drain  the  wkole  mountain  region  south  of  el- 
Bireh  and  west  of  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem.  The  former 
has  its  remote  beginning  just  south  of  el-Bireh  in  a  hollow 
way  leading  down  to  the  open  tract  west  of  er-Ram  ;  while 
other  heads  are  in  the  plain  north  and  west  of  Gibeon,  drain- 
ing them  at  first  southeast  into  this  valley ;  which,  as  Wady 
Beit  Hanina,  passes  close  under  the  village  of  that  name  ; 
and  so,  in  a  southwesterly  course,  and  afterwards  W.  S.  W. 
along  the  southeasterly  base  of  the  ridge  on  which  are  situ- 
ated Neby  Samwil,  Kiistul,  Soba,  and  Kesla.    Opposite  to 

1  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  p.  57.   Tobler  Dritte  TTauderung,  pp.  20,  25. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  153,  154. 


\ 

VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST.  115 

the  villages  KulSnieh  and  Sataf,  the  great  Wady  is  for  a  time 
called  by  those  names.  Near  the  village  'Akur,  another  deep 
side  valley  comes  in  from  the  east,  made  up  of  three  branches. 
One  of  these,  Wady  el-Werd,  comes  from  the  plain  of  Re- 
phaim  just  southwest  of  Jerusalem ;  another  is  Wady  Ahmed, 
coming  from  Beit  Jala  and  the  tract  west  of  Bethlehem  ; 
and  the  third  is  Wady  Bittir,  which  has  its  head  near  el- 
Khudr  (St.  George)  and  joins  the  other  near  the  village 
Bittir.  Beyond  this  village  the  whole  valley  is  called  Wady 
Bittir,  or  also  Wady  Haniyeh,  from  the  fountain  in  it  near 
Welejeh.  Below  'Akur  the  great  united  valley  passes  off 
W.  S.  W.  as  Wady  Isma'il ;  and  breaks  down  through  the 
high  ridge  by  a  wild  and  rugged  chasm  to  the  little  plain 
above  'Ain  Shems.^ 

Northwest  of  the  ridge  of  Kustul  and  Soba,  the  whole  tract 
quite  to  the  western  brow  of  the  mountain,  is  drained  by  the 
two  branches  of  Wady  Ghurab.  The  longest  and  largest 
begins  at  some  distance  northeast  of  Beit  Niikkaba  and  north 
of  Kustul ;  and  lies  close  along  the  northwestern  base  of  the 
high  ridge  of  Soba.  The  shorter  branch,  which  also  is  deep 
and  rugged,  begins  just  by  Saris  ;  and  leaves  on  the  west 
only  the  high  thin  ridge  forming  the  western  brow  of  the 
mountain. 2 

Three  valleys  named  in  Scripture  appear  to  be  connected 
with  the  preceding  great  Wady  Surar  and  its  head  branches  ; 
two  of  them  on  the  mountains,  and  one  in  the  plains.  The 
first  is  the  valley  (p^^:)  of  Gibeon,  referring  apparently  to  the 
narrower  plain  between  Gibeon  and  the  ridge  of  Neby  Sam- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  455,  575,  11.  pp.  4,  5  [II.  pp.  136,  314,  III.  p.  325J. 
Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  158,  267.   Tobler  Dritte  Wanderung,  pp.  163,  197. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  155-158. 


116  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


wil,  probably  as  tbe  scene  of  Joshua's  overthrow  of  the  five 
kings.i  The  second  is  the  valleij  (p^^r)  of  Rephaim  or  the  Gi- 
ants, southwest  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  border  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin.  It  is  a  broad  valley  or  plain,  separated  from 
the  valley  of  Hinnom  only  by  a  swell  of  rocky  ground  ;  and 
in  it  Wady  el-Werd' has  its  beginning.  Here  David  fought 
a  great  battle  with  the  Philistines,  as  narrated  also  by  Jose- 
ph us.^  The  remaining  scriptural  name,  in  or  near  the  plain, 
is  the  valley  (^n3)  of  Sorek,  where  Samson  found  Delilah. 
As  Samson's  home  was  at  Zorah,  overlooking  the  plain  of 
Wady  Surar  and  also  towards  the  east  the  plain  or  recess 
shut  in  among  the  mountains,  it  is  probable  that  the  valley  of 
Sorek  was  in  that  region.  In  accordance  with  this,  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  testify,  that  in  their  day  a  village  called  Caphar- 
sorech  (Kefr  Sorek)  was  still  shown  not  far  from  Zorah. 
The  valley  of  Sorek,  then,  was  probably  either  the  Surar 
itself,  in  that  part,  or  some  side  valley  opening  into  it  within 
the  recess.  The  name  appears  to  come  from  the  excellence 
of  the  vines  and  vineyards  in  this  line  southern  exposure. 

The  great  valley  next  south  of  the  Surar,  bears  in  the  plain 
the  name  of  Wady  es-Sumt  or  es-Sunt,  Acacia  valley,  from 
trees  of  that  kind  scattered  in  it.  Two  main  branches  unite 
to  form  it,  Wady  el-Musurr  in  the  northeast,  and  Wady  es-Sur 
in  the  south-southeast.  Wady  el-Musurr  has  its  head  not 
far  northwest  of  el-Khudr  (St.  George),  and  passes  down  by 
Jeb'ah,  having  received  several  other  deep  Wadys  which  break 
down  from  the  brow  of  the  mountain  at  and  near  Beit  Saka- 

1  Isa.  xxviii.  21;  comp.  Josh.  x.  10-12,  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  454,  455 
[IL  p.  135]. 

2  Josh.  XV.  8,  xviii.  10;  also  2  Sam.  v.  18,  22,  xxili.  13,  14.  Joseph.  Antiq., 
7.  4.  1.   Ibid.,  7,  12.  4. 

3  Judg.  xvi.  4.   Onomast.,  Article  Sorech. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


117 


rieli.i  Its  course  is  there  about  west.  South  of  Beit  Ncttif 
it  receives  Wad}^  es-Sur  from  the  left ;  and  the  united  valley 
becomes  Wady  es-Sumt.  Wady  es-Sur  has  its  beginning 
near  Beit  Nusib,  and  is  a  fine  open  valley  or  plain.^  After 
the  junction,  Wady  es-Sumt  continues  its  course  westwards 
for  an  hour,  as  a  broad,  fertile  plain  with  moderate  hills  on 
each  side.  It  then  bends  to  the  north,  passing  on  the  right 
of  Tell  Zakariya  ;  and  turning  afterwards  more  to  the  left, 
reaches  the  plain.  We  were  told  in  1838  that  it  runs  to  the 
Surar  ;  but  later  information  makes  it  continue  by  itself  to 
the  sea,  not  far  north  of  Esdud.^ 

On  the  south  side  of  the  noble  plain  of  Wady  es-Stimt,  as 
it  stretches  off  for  an  hour  below  the  junction  of  its  two 
branches,  in  a  gap  of  the  southern  hill,  are  seen  the  ruins  of 
Shuweikeh,  the  ancient  Socoh  of  the  plain  of  Judah,  coup- 
led in  Scripture  with  Jarmath  and  Azekah.*  Scripture  also 
tells  us  that  the  Philistines  "  were  gathered  together  at  So- 
coh, which  belongeth  to  Judah,  and  pitched  between  Socoh 

and  Azekah  And  Saul  and  the  men  of  Israel  were 

gathered  together  and  pitched  by  tlic  valley  (P^>)  of  Elah, 
and  set  the  battle  in  array  against  the  Philistines.  And  the 
Philistines  stood  on  a  mountain  on  the  one  side,  and  Israel 
stood  on  a  mountain  on  the  other  side ;  and  there  was  a 
valley  between  them."  ^  This  graphic  description  enables 
us  at  once  to  identify  this  part  of  Wady  es-Sumt  with  the 
valley  of  Elah,  the  scene  of  David's  combat  with  Goliah,  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  5  [IL  p.  327].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  284. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  220,  223  [IL  pp.  12,  16]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  5,  20,  21  [IL  pp.  326,  349].  Tobler  Dritte  Wander- 
ung,  pp.  181,  197. 

*  Josh.  XV.  35. 
1  Sam.  xvii.  1-3. 


118  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


first  essay  of  the  youthful  warrior  and  poet  as  tlie  champion 
of  Israel.^ 

On  the  north  side  of  Beit  Jibrin,  the  ancient  EleutheropoUs, 
a  long  valley  comes  out  from  the  mountains,  known  as  Wady 
el-Feranj,  lying  between  Idhna  and  Terkumieh.  Its  heads 
are  deep  ravines  breaking  down  on  the  north  of  Tefiuh  (^Beth 
Tappuali)  and  from  towards  Dura  (^Adora)  and  Hebron  in 
the  southeast.  After  passing  Beit  Jibrin  it  turns  north  as  a 
fine  broad  open  valley  among  the  low  hills  ;  enters  the  great 
western  plain  ;  and  sweeps  around  on  the  south  of  Tell  es- 
Safieh,  the  Alia  Specula  of  the  crusaders,  towards  the  south- 
west. It  passes  just  on  the  east  of  the  village  Bureir  ;  then 
turns  west,  having  the  village  of  Simsim  on  the  north  side ; 
and  bending  more  northwest  goes  to  the  sea,  without  a  per- 
manent stream,  just  south  of  Askelon.  In  the  plain  this 
valley  is  known  as  Wady  Simsim  ;  and  has  the  character  of 
a  broad  and  rich  depression,  with  a  gravelly  water-course 
usually  dry. 2  Where  it  bends  west  around  Bureir,  it  receives 
from  the  east  the  similar  valley,  Wady  el-Hasy,  which  drains 
the  region  of  lower  hills  as  far  south  as  the  region  of  el-Burj, 
and  passes  down  on  the  north  side  of  Tell  el-Hasy,  as  a  broad 
meadow-like  tract.^ 

There  is  no  direct  scriptural  allusion  to  the  great  valley 
just  described ;  unless,  perhaps,  a  portion  of  it  may  be  the 
valleij  (Ji'i-A)  of  Zephathah  near  Marcsha,  where  King  Asa  de- 
feated the  hosts  of  Zerah  the  Ethiopian.*  Maresha,  we  know, 
was  situated  about  a  mile  southeast  of  Beit  Jibrin  ;  and  the 
broad  valley  running  from  the  latter  nearly  to  Tell  es-Safieh, 

1  1  Sam  xvii.   Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  21  [H.  p.  349]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  U.  pp.  24,  35,  46,  49,  71  [H.  pp.  355,  371,  388,  391,  427]. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  47,  48  [U.  pp.  387-390] . 

4  2ChroD.  xiv.  10. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


119 


may  well  have  been  the  battle-field  in  question,  taking  its 
name,  Zephathah,  from  the  neighboring  Tell. 

Another  remarkable  event  of  scriptural  history  probably 
took  place  in  one  portion  of  tliis  valley  in  the  plain  ;  I  mean 
the  baptism  of  the  eunuch  by  Philip.  This  evangelist,  being 
at  Samaria,  was  directed  by  an  angel  to  "  go  toward  the 
south,  unto  the  way  that  goeth  down  from  Jerusalem  unto 
Gaza,  which  is  desert."  ^  This  last  expression  cannot  well 
refer  to  Gaza  ;  it  was  not  true  in  fact  when  the  book  of  Acts 
was  written.  It  belongs,  therefore,  rather  to  the  angel,  spec- 
ifying which  of  the  several  roads  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza 
Philip  was  to  visit.  It  was  the  road  leading  through  the 
uninhabited  district,  without  towns  and  villages  ;  and  of 
course  the  southernmost  road.  It  corresponds  to  the  present 
road  from  Beit  Jibrin  to  Gaza ;  which  now,  as  anciently,  is 
also  the  main  route  from  Hebron  to  Gaza.  This  route  lies 
along  on  the  north  side  of  the  meadow-like  tract  of  Wady  el- 
Hasy,  and  also  of  Wady  Simsim  for  a  short  distance  below 
the  junction.  In  the  gravelly  bed  of  these  valleys  we  saw, 
in  May,  1838,  water  percolating  through  the  sand  and  gravel, 
and  forming  occasional  pools.  It  was  probably  on  this  road 
that  Philip  found  the  eunuch,  and  baptized  him.  Philip 
himself  was  next  found  at  Azotus  (Ashdod),  a  few  miles  north 
of  this  very  spot.^  This  definite  mention  of  the  '  desert '  and 
of  Azotus,  are  decisive  against  the  legendary  traditions,  which 
fix  the  place  of  the  baptism  anywhere  upon  the  mountains, 
either  north  of  Hebron  or  southwest  of  Jerusalem. ^ 

The  next  great  valley  in  the  plain,  Wady  esh-Sheri'ah, 
comes  from  Beersheba,  south  of  all  the  mountains,  where  it 

1  Acts  viii.  26;  comp.  v.  5. 

2  Acts  viii.  39,  40. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  514  [11.  p.  C40].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  278. 


.120 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


is  known  as  Wady  es-Seba'.  It  takes  its  way  northwest 
through  the  plain  to  the  sea  not  far  south  of  Gaza,  where  at 
its  mouth  it  is  called  Wady  Ghuzzeh,  and  is  without  peren- 
nial water.  It  forms  a  depressed  plain,  with  a  gravelly  water- 
bed.  Not  far  east  of  Beersheba  its  two  branches  unite,  coming 
from  different  points.  One  is  from  the  southeast,  having  its 
beginning  beyond  Aroer;  it  receives  a  tributary  from  the  north- 
east from  beyond  el-Milh,  and  passes  around  the  southwestern 
extremity  or  bluflf  of  the  last  ridge  of  mountains,  south  of 
Kurmul.^  The  other  and  larger  branch  comes  from  the  north- 
east from  beyond  Hebron.  It  has  its  heads  east  of  Halhul ; 
and  extending  down  as  a  deep  valley  between  Hebron  and 
Beni  Naim,  it  continues  on  the  same  general  course  south- 
westerly to  the  junction  near  Beersheba.  The  shorter  par- 
allel valley  in  which  Hebron  lies,  runs  into  the  same  some 
distance  below  the  town  ;  and  from  that  point,  if  not  above, 
the  great  valley  bears  the  name  of  Wady  el-Khulil.^ 

To  the  preceding  valley  or  its  branches  there  seem  to  be 
three  separate  references  in  Scripture.  Thus  in  Genesis,  we 
find  Jacob  abiding  in  the  vale  (p'2:>)  of  Hebron^  and  sending 
out  Joseph  to  Shcchem  to  visit  his  brethren. ^  This  valley, 
of  course,  can  only  be  that  in  which  Hebron  lies  ;  and  which 
runs  to  the  great  valley  further  south,  f^cripture  also  names 
the  brook  (5n:)  of  Eshcol,  whence  the  spies  cut  down  a  branch 
with  one  cluster  of  grapes,  and  bore  it  between  two  upon  a 
staff ;  and,  the  valley,  it  is  said,  was  called  Eslicol  (cluster), 
because  of  the  cluster  of  grapes  thus  cut  down.^    This  inci- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  198-200  [H.  pp.  61G-619J. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  281.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  489,  H.  p.  206 
[H.  pp.  180,  629]. 

3  Gen.  xxxvii.  14;  comp.  vs.  12,  13. 

<  Num.  xiii.  23,  24;  comp.  Num.  xxxii.  9;  Deut.  i.  24. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


121 


dent  is  related  in  connection  with  the  visit  of  the  spies  at 
Hebron  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  to  the  present  day  the 
vineyards  and  grapes  of  Hebron  are  superior  to  those  of  any 
other  part  of  Palestine.  Further,  of  the  three  Hebronites, 
Aner,  Eshcol,  and  Mamre,  who  accompanied  Abraham  in 
his  pursuit  of  the  five  kings,  the  name  of  Mamre  was  con- 
nected with  the  ^  oaks  of  Mamre,'  where  Abraham  dwelt ; 
and  in  like  manner  the  name  of  Eshcol  probably  had  some 
relation  to  the  rich  valley  of  vineyards. ^  We  may  therefore 
without  hesitation  identify  the  valley  of  Eshcol  with  that 
valley  near  Hebron,  which  to  the  present  day  is  marked  be- 
yond others  by  the  number  and  excellence  of  its  vineyards. 
Such  is  the  valley  coming  down  towards  the  city  from  the 
northwest,  known  as  Wady  TeMh  ;  up  which  leads  the  road 
to  that  place  and  Beit  Jibrin.  In  the  same  valley  is  also  the 
celebrated  Sindian  oak.  The  vineyards  along  this  valley  are 
very  fine,  and  produce  the  largest  and  best  grapes  in  all  the 
country.  Pomegranates  also  and  figs,  as  well  as  apricots, 
quinces,  and  the  like,  still  grow  there  in  great  abundance.^ 

When  David  and  his  men  returned  from  near  Jezreel  to 
Ziklag,  which  had  been  given  him  by  Achish  king  of  the 
Philistines,  in  the  south  of  Judah,  they  found  that  city  plun- 
dered and  burned  by  a  horde  of  Amalekites  from  the  south- 
ern desert.^  David  immediately  pursued  them  "  with  six 
hundred  men,  and  came  to  the  brook  (^ni)  Besor;^'  where 

1  Gen.  xiv.  24,  xiii.  18. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  214  [I,  p.  316].  Van  de  Velde  says  he  heard  at 
Hebron  the  name  of  a  fountain,  'Ain  Eskali^  a  few  minutes  north  of  the  city; 
Mem.,  p.  310;  Narr.  II.  p.  64.  But  the  Arabic  scholar  G.  Rosen,  Prussian  consul 
at  Jerusalem,  in  describing  Hebron,  writes  the  name  of  the  same  fountain  as  'Ain 
Eashkala,  the  k  in  each  case  representing  Eof.  Zeitschr.  der  morg.  Ges.,  18.j8, 
p.  481,  and  plate. 

3  I  Sam.  XXX.  1,  2;  comp.  xxvii.  6,  xxix.  1,  11. 

16 


122 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


"  two  hundred  abode  behind,  which  were  so  faint  that  they 
could  not  go  over  the  brook  Besor  ;  "  having  just  come  from 
a  long  march  of  three  dajs.^  As  the  exact  position  of  Ziklag 
has  not  yet  been  determined,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  with 
certainty  as  to  the  '  brook '  Besor.  Yet  we  know  that  Ziklag 
was  one  of  the  '  uttermost '  towns  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
'  toward  the  coast  of  Edom  southward  ; '  and  w^as  afterwards 
given  with  other  cities  of  the  same  region  to  Simeon In 
the  lists  of  both  tribes,  Ziklag  stands  next  to  Hormah,  which 
we  know  to  have  been  quite  in  the  southeastern  quarter.^ 
The  Philistines  had  apparently  come  around  by  Beersheba 
on  the  south  of  the  mountains  ;  and  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  Ziklag  and  probably  other  places  in  the  open  region 
north  of  Aroer  and  east  of  Moladah  (el-Milh)  ;  both  which 
towns  are  named  in  connection  with  Ziklag.*  The  Amale- 
kites,  we  are  told,  had  "  made  an  invasion  upon  the  south 
of  the  Cherethites  [Philistines],  and  upon  what  belongeth  to 
Judah,  and  upon  the  south  of  Caleb  ;"  and  thence  had  gone 
to  Ziklag.^  They  would  seem  to  have  approached  from  the 
southwest ;  penetrated  into  Judah  as  far  as  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Hebron  the  possession  of  Caleb  ;  ^  and  then  turned 
south  across  the  mountain  by  Maon  or  Moladah  to  Ziklag, 
which  they  destroyed.'  From  Ziklag  they  probably  took  a 
southwesterly  course,  in  order  to  regain  the  usual  highway 
of  the  desert,  lying  west  of  the  mountains  further  south. 

1  1  Sam.  XXX.  9,  10;  comp.  vs.  1. 

2  Josh.  XV.  21,  31,  xix.  5.  All  the  towns  of  Simeon  appear  to  have  been 
situated  in  this  southeastern  quarter  of  Judah. 

3  Num.  xiv.  45,  xxi.  3;  Deut.  i.  44;  Judg.  i.  17.  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp. 
181,  198  [H.  pp.  592,  017]. 

4  Josh.  XV.  2G;  xix.  2;  1  Sam.  xxx.  26,  28. 

5  1  Sam.  xxx.  14.  <5  Josh.  xiv.  13;  xv.  13. 
7  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  97,  203  [H.  pp.  4G6,  624]. 


VALLEYS  RUNNING  TO  THE  COAST. 


123 


This  course  from  Ziklag  would  take  them  across  the  "Wady 
'Ar'arah,  the  southeastern  branch  of  Wady  es-Seba',  running 
from  Aroer  to  Beersheba ;  and  this  in  all  probability  was  the 
'  brook  Besor  '  of  the  narrative. 

South  of  Beersheba,  the  great  valleys  or  water-courses  are 
known  only  along  the  main  highway  of  the  desert  leading 
from  Sinai  to  Beersheba.  Thus  at  el-Khulasah,  the  ancient 
Elusa,  passes  Wady  el-Kurn  ;  which  lower  down  receives 
Wady  Ruhaibeh,  coming  from  the  place  of  ruins  of  that 
name  further  south.  Below  the  junction  of  these  two,  the 
valley  thus  formed  is  called,  according  to  one  account,  Wady 
es-Suny,  and  goes  to  the  Sheri'ah  near  the  sea  ;  while  accord- 
ing to  another  account,  it  is  Wady  Khuberah,  a  fertile  valley, 
which  goes  to  Wady  el-'Arish.^  A  valley  also  reaches  the  sea 
at  Khan  Yumas,  some  distance  south  of  Gaza.^  To  some 
portion  or  branch  of  these  valleys  south  and  southeast  of 
Gaza,  is  doubtless  to  be  referred  the  valley  (^n:)  of  Gerar^ 
where  Isaac  pitched  his  tent,  after  he  left  the  city  of  Gerar.^ 

Only  one  more  scriptural  valley  remains  to  be  noticed  in 
this  quarter ;  and  that  is  the  river  or  rather  torrent  of 
Egypt;  which  of  old  was  the  boundary  between  Palestine 
and  Egypt.^  At  the  present  day  it  is  called  Wady  el-'Arish  ; 
and  comes  from  the  passes  of  Jebel  et-Tih  towards  Sinai, 
draining  the  great  central  longitudinal  basin  of  the  desert. 
It  reaches  the  sea  without  a  permanent  stream  ;  and  is  still 
the  boundary  between  the  two  countries.  Near  its  mouth 
is  a  small  village,  el-'Arish,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Rhi- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  202  [I.  p.  298]. 

2  Ii-by  and  Mangles,  p.  55.   Richardson's  Travels,  II.  p.  195. 

3  Gen.  xxvi.  17;  comp.  xx.  1,  xxvi.  1,  6. 

*  Num.  xxxiv.  5;  Josh.  xv.  4, 47;  comp.  1  Kings  viii.  65;  2  Kings  xxiv.  7;  Isa 
xxvii.;  2  So  too,  simply  *  the  river,'  torrent,  Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  xlviii.  28. 


124 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


nocolura ;  as  is  shown  by  columns  and  other  Roman  re- 
mains.^ 

Note.  — In  the  book  of  Psalms  mention  is  once  made  of  a  valley  (pis^), 
of  Baca,  that  is,  '  valley  of  weeping,'  '  vale  of  tears.'  ^  Here,  under  the 
figure  of  a  desert,  joyless  valley  without  water,  the  Psalmist  would  seem  to 
present  human  life,  or  some  portion  of  it ;  which  the  righteous  journeying 
through,  by  their  trust  in  God  it  becomes  to  them  a  fruitful  and  joyous 
valley  gushing  with  fountains.  Their  suffering  is  changed  into  rejoicing, 
their  sorrow  into  joy. 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  199  [I.  p.  2931.  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  p.  54. 
Richardson's  Travels,  IL  p.  191. 

2  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  7,  Heb.   See  De  Wette  and  Hengstenberg  in  loc. 


PLAINS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


125 


SECTION  III. 

PLAINS. 

Many  of  the  Plains  of  Palestine  are  the  bottoms  of  broad 
valleys  ;  and,  as  such,  have  been  described  in  the  preceding 
Section.  Such  are  the  plains  included  in  the  Ghor,  and  iii 
the  valley  of  Jezreel,  Wady  el-Fari'a,  and  others. 

We  begin  with  the  plains  lying  along  the  coast,  as  the 
most  important. 

L   PLAINS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 

In  the  north,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  long  and  nar- 
row Phenician  plain,  south  of  Tyre,  first  claims  our  notice. 
On  the  east,  low  ridges  run  down  into  it  from  the  hill- 
country  ;  and  leave  an  actual  plain  of  only  some  three  or  four 
miles  in  breadth.  This  is  not  specially  fertile.  On  the 
south,  it  is  skirted  by  the  higher  ridges  which  go  to  the  sea, 
and  form  Has  el-Abyad  in  the  north  and  Ras  en-Nakurah 
(the  Ladder  of  Tyre)  in  the  south. 

These  ridges  separate  the  plain  of  Tyre  from  the  plain 
of  'Akka ;  which  extends  from  the  ridge  forming  Ras  en- 
Nakurah  to  the  base  of  Carmel,  a  distance  of  about  twenty 
miles.  The  average  breadth  is  from  four  to  six  miles. 
On  the  east  is  the  hill-country  of  Upper  Galilee,  occasionally 
wooded,  rising  for  the  most  part  steeply  from  the  plain  ;  but 
yet  with  frequent  ridges  running  out  in  low  points  and 


126 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


gradually  losing  themselves  in  the  plain.^  The  whole  tract 
is  fertile  and  well  watered,  having  many  fountains  and  two 
larger  streams,  the  Belus  and  Kishon.  The  region  south  of 
'Akka  is  apparently  lower  ground,  affording  large  tracts  of 
pasturage.  Here  in  April,  1852,  we  saw,  what  is  not  usu- 
ally seen  elsewhere  in  Palestine,  persons  occupied  in  mowing 
and  hay-making.  In  the  same  region  several  isolated  Tells 
rise  up  in  the  plain.^  This  plain,  like  the  preceding,  is  not 
directly  referred  to  in  Scripture. 

On  the  southwestern  side  of  Mount  Carmel,  the  spurs  and 
valleys,  which  constitute  its  more  gradual  slope  on  that  side, 
fill  up  for  a  long  distance  the  interval  between  the  moun- 
tain and  the  sea.  For  some  time,  and  more  towards  the 
south,  a  low  ledge  of  rocks  runs  parallel  to  and  near  the 
shore  ;  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  water  is  mostly 
covered  with  drift-sand.^  It  is  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Caesa- 
rea,  that  the  hills  recede,  and  the  plain  opens  to  the  extent  of 
seven  or  eight  miles.  Here  begins  the  celebrated  plain  of 
Sharon,  several  times  mentioned  in  Scripture  for  its  rich 
fields  and  pastures,  in  connection  with  Carmel  and  Lebanon.'* 
It  extends,  with  an  average  breadth  of  about  ten  miles,  as  far 
south  as  to  Lydda  and  Joppa  ;  a  length  of  over  thirty  miles. 
Jerome,  in  one  place,  makes  the  region  lying  between  Lydda, 
Joppa,  and  Jamnia,  belong  to  it.^  The  tract  immediately 
along  the  shore  is  low,  and  in  some  parts  marshy  ;  the  inte- 
rior part,  along  the  base  of  the  hills,  is  everywhere  fertile 
and  cultivated.    Between  these  two  tracts,  north  of  the  river 

1  See  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  88,  89. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  102,  103. 

3  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  H.  pp.  248,  249,  253. 

4  Isa.  xxxiii.  9,  xxxv.  2,  Ixv.  10;  1  Chron.  xxvii.  29. 

^  Acts  ix.  35.  Onomast.,  Article  Saron.  Hieron.  in  Jes.,  65,  10.  Reland,  Pal- 
aestina,  pp.  188,  370. 


PLAINS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


127 


'Aujeh,  rises  a  low  plateau,  or  range  of  low  hills,  some  of 
them  wooded,  but  of  less  fertile  laud.  This  extends  half 
way  to  Caesarea,  and  causes  all  the  valleys  from  the  moun- 
tains, in  that  part,  to  turn  southward  to  the  'Aujeh.^  Tlie 
wood  scattered  in  the  plain  is  deciduous  oak,  rising  in  the 
north  into  trees,  but  in  the  south  exhibiting  only  bushes.^ 
It  was  probably  from  the  frequenc}^  of  this  tree,  that  Ihe 
plain  was  anciently  also  called  Drumas  ( Jpu/xoV)  ;  which  the 
Seventy  have  sometimes  put  for  Sharon.^ 

Near  to  Lydda,  and  therefore  probably  in  some  connection 
with  the  plains  of  Sharon,  or  rather  perhaps  with  the  Sepli- 
ela,  was  the  valley  or  plain  of  Ono.  once  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. This  was  apparently  the  plain  around  Beit  Nuba, 
north  of  Ajalon  ;  as  we  have  already  shown.* 

The  whole  great  maritime  plain  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
south  of  Lydda  and  Joppa,  comprising  the  country  of  the 
Philistines,  is  called  in  the  Hebrew  the  Sephela  (M^s^'n,  Gr.  i) 
^6<j)r]\d)  ;  signifying  properly  '  low  country,'  and  sometimes 
so  rendered  in  the  English  Version ;  as  likewise  by '  low  plain,' 
*plain,'  and  '  valley.'  ^  Eusebius  and  Jerome  describe  it  as 
the  great  plain  extending  around  Eleutlieropolis  (Beit  Jib- 
rin),  in  tlie  north  and  in  the  west ;  it  included  Betli-she- 
mesh  and  Ajalon.^    It  extended  to  Gaza  and  beyond ;  but 

1  Later  Biblical  Resefwches,  p.  138. 

2  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  II.  p.  254. 

3  Septuagint,  Apv/xds,  Isa,  Ixv.  10;  Sapwj',  Isa.  xxxiii.  9;  Th  neSlov,  Cant.  ii.  1. 
Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  188  sq. 

*  Neh.  vi.  2.   See  above,  p.  113. 

*  So  Enp:l.  'low  country/  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10,  xxviii.  18;  'low  plain,'  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  28;  2  Chron.  ix.  27;  '  plain,'  Jer.  xvii.  26;  *  valley/  Josh.  xi.  IG;  Judg.  i.  9. 
Gr.,  7]  :S,f<pT}\d,  Sept.,  Jcr.  xxxii.  44,  xxxiii.  13;  1  Mace.  xii.  38.  Sept.  usually, 
7]  ireStfTj  or  rh  TreSiov. 

*  Onomast.,  Article  Sephela.   2  Chron.  xxviii.  18. 


128. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  southern  border  is  nowhere  specified ;  and  the  coun- 
trj  in  that  quarter  is  often  spoken  of  under  the  name  of 
Daroma^  'the  south'  (Heb.  ciTi,  Gr.  6  ^apco/jud^'),  ahhough 
this  name  comprehended  not  only  the  plain,  but  all  the 
south  of  Palestine.^  We  may  assume  the  length  of  the 
Sephela  at  not  less  than  forty  miles ;  the  breadth  in  the 
north  being  about  ten  miles,  and  widening  gradually  to- 
wards the  south  to  some  twenty  miles  at  Gaza.  On  the  west 
a  line  of  sand-hills  separates  it  from  the  waters  of  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  while  on  the  east  it  is  bordered  by  the  tract  of 
lower  hills  intervening  between  the  mountain  and  the  plain. 
South  of  the  mountains,  the  plain  extends  up  eastward  to 
Beersheba  and  beyond. 

H.   PLAINS  IN  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR. 

Both  the  historian  of  the  Maccabees  and  Josephus  relate, 
that  the  host  of  the  Syrians  was  encamped  at  Kedesh  of 
Galilee  ;  that  Jonathan  with  his  host  pitched  by  the  "  water 
of  Gennesar,"  apparently  on  the  high  ground  northwest  of 
the  lake  of  Galilee ;  that  early  in  the  morning  they  made 
their  way  to  the  plain  of  Asor,  where  the  Syrians  met  them, 
having  set  an  ambush  in  the  adjacent  mountains  ;  that  at 
first,  when  the  ambush  rose  behind  them,  Jonathan's  troops 
were  discomfited  and  fled ;  but  afterwards  recovered  them- 
selves,  put  the  Syrians  to  flight,  and  pursued  them  to  Kedesh, 
even  to  their  tents,  and  there  encamped.^  This  description 
points  quite  definitely  to  the  plain  stretching  south  from 
Kedesh  for  the  distance  of  about  three  miles,  to  the  brow  of 
the  deep  and  almost  impassable  ravine  of  Wady  Hendaj.  On 

1  Reland,  Palaestina,  pp.  185-187. 

2  1  Mace.  xi.  C3,  67-75,  Vulg.   Joseph.  Antiq.,  13.  5.  G,  7. 


PLAINS  IN  TIIE  inLL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GIIOR.  129 


that  brow,  overlooking  the  ravine  and  the  lake  of  the  Huleh, 
is  the  Tell  witli  ancient  remains  now  known  as  el-Khuraibch. 
This  plain  is  accessible  from  the  south,  only  by  passing  along 
the  basin  of  the  Huleh  as  far  as  Wady  Hendaj  ;  and  then 
ascending  the  mountains.  The  Syrians  had  set  an  ambush 
in  these  mountains ;  and  came  out  in  force  from  Kedesh 
upon  the  plain  to  meet  the  Jews.  They  were  finally  driven 
back  ;  and  their  tents  at  Kedesh  captured.  There  can  here 
be  no  doubt  that  the  Asor  of  this  passage  is  a  later  form  for 
the  earlier  name  Hazor,  the  city  of  the  Jabins  ;  the  plain 
having  thus  retained  the  name,  long  after  the  city  had  passed 
away.  Hazor  is  twice  mentioned  in  direct  connection  with 
Kedesh;  and  overlooked  the  Huleh.  Its  site  was  in  all  prob- 
ability at  Tell  Khuraibeh.i 

South  of  the  higher  mountains  of  Naphthali,  are  several 
parallel  plains,  stretching  from  east  to  west  across  the  hill, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  ridges  or  ranges  of  hills. 
The  northernmost  of  these  is  the  -plum  of  Ramah,  which  we 
first  saw  from  the  brow  of  the  mountain  south  of  Beit  Jenn. 
It  is  shut  in  on  the  north  by  this  mountain ;  and  on  the  south 
by  a  lower  ridge,  on  the  eastern  part  of  wliich  is  Tell  Haziir. 
At  the  western  end  of  the  plain  are  the  rocky  hills  overlook- 
ing the  plain  of  'Akka  ;  while  its  eastern  end  is  skirted  by 
only  a  slight  ridge.  The  length  from  east  to  west  is  about 
ten  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  less  than  two  miles. 
Through  it  passes  the  great  road  from  'Akka  to  Damascus, 
by  way  of  the  bridge  of  the  Jordan. 

1 2  Kings  XV.  29;  Josh.  xix.  35-37.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  5.  5.  1.  See  Later  Biblical 
Researches,  p.  3G5.  The  Greeli  in  1  Mace.  xi.  G7  now  reads,  ds  rh  inBiou  IJatrdpt 
repeating  apparently  the  final  iV"u«  of  iredlov  before  the  initial  vowel  of  'Ao-cSp, 
This  latter  form  is  several  times  read  in  Josephus.  So  too  the  Vulgate.  Reland, 
Palaestina,  p.  597. 

17 


130 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


This  plain  is  very  fertile  ;  and  is  full  of  very  old  olive 
trees,  called  by  the  natives  Rumy  or  '  Greek/  from  an  indefin- 
able impression  that  they  are  older  than  the  Muhammedan 
conquest.  The  eastern  part  of  the  plain,  as  far  as  to  Ramah, 
is  drained  by  a  head  water-course  of  Wady  Sellameh,  which 
sweeps  round  from  the  east  and  passes  out  through  a  gap  on 
the  west  of  Tell  Hazur ;  whence  it  runs  to  the  plain  and 
lake  of  Gennesareth.  The  fine  western  basin  of  the  plain  is . 
drained  by  the  beginnings  of  Wady  Sha'ab ;  which  latter  in 
like  manner  passes  off  through  another  gap  in  the  southern 
ridge  ;  and  then  turns  west  to  the  plain  of  'Akka.  The  pros- 
pect from  the  brow  of  the  mountain  above  Ramah,  over  this 
plain  and  the  country  further  south,  is  very  beautiful,  and 
is  scarcely  surpassed  in  Palestine.^ 

Passing  over  two  or  three  ridges  and  ranges  of  hills,  with 
intervening  smaller  plains,  we  come  to  the  noble  plain  now 
known  as  el-Buttauf,  and  called  by  Josephus  the  great  plain 
of  Asocliis?  It  was  properly  the  plain  of  Zebulun  ;  the  Rim- 
mon  of  that  tribe  being  still  recognized  in  tlie  Rummaneh  of 
this  plain. ^  Its  length  is  about  ten  miles  from  east  to  west, 
by  a  breadth  of  about  ten  miles.  On  the  north  are  the  ranges 
of  hills,  among  which  Jotapata  was  situated ;  and  at  the 
southern  base  of  which,  about  midway  of  the  plain,  is  still 
found  the  deserted  village  of  Kana  ;  the  ancient  Cana  of 
Galilee.  The  highest  of  these  hills,  now  called  Deidebeh,  is 
near  Kefr  Menda. 

On  the  south  the  plain  is  shut  in  on  its  southeastern  part 
by  a  steep  and  almost  isolated  ridge,  dividing  it  from  the 
lesser  plain  of  Tu'ran  beyond ;  and  ending  towards  the  west 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  78-89. 

2  Joseph.  Vita,  41.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  110,  111. 

3  Josh.  xix.  13;  1  Chron.  vi.  77  [02]. 


PLAINS  IN  THE  IIILL-COUNTKY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR.  131 

near  Rummaneh.  West  of  this  the  plain  is  bordered  on  the 
south  by  the  low  hills  and  broken  tract  towards  Seffurieh. 
On  the  east  also  are  low  hills  towards  Hattm ;  and  on  the 
west  similar  heights,  with  a  conspicuous  isolated  Tell,  called 
el-Bedawiyeh.  The  whole  eastern  portion  of  the  plain  has 
no  outlet  for  its  waters  ;  so  that  in  winter  it  becomes  a  lake, 
extending  sometimes  as  far  west  as  to  the  road  between  Kana 
and  Rummaneh.  The  western  portion  is  drained  towards 
the  southwest  by  Wady  Bedawiyeh  ;  which,  still  in  the  plain, 
receives  the  Wady  coming  from  Tu'ran.  Further  down  it 
becomes  Wady  Melik,  and  goes  to  the  lower  Kishon.  This 
whole  plain  is  of  the  richest  fertility ;  and  was  a  glorious 
portion  of  the  inheritance  of  Zebulun.^ 

We  come  next  to  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  lying  be- 
tween Tabor  and  Carmel,  and  between  the  hills  of  Galilee 
on  the  north  and  those  of  Samaria  on  the  south.  This  plain, 
as  we  have  seen,  completely  interrupts  the  line  of  hill-coun- 
try ;  and  forms,  in  connection  with  the  valley  of  the  Kishon 
in  the  west,  and  its  own  middle  arm  in  the  east,  an  easy 
roadway  from  the  coast  to  the  river  Jordan.  The  elevation 
of  the  watershed  of  the  plain,  near  el-Fuleh,  is  about  four 
hundred  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  it  cannot  well 
be  less  than  one  thousand  feet  above  the  Jordan.^ 

The  great  plain,  in  the  proper  sense,  is  triangular  in  form  ; 
having  its  southernmost  angle  at  or  near  Jenm.  A  line 
drawn  from  this  place  northward,  along  the  magnetic  merid- 
ian, would  touch  the  western  extremities  of  the  two  moun- 
tains Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon,  and  strike  the  northern 
hills  a  little  east  of  the  mount  of  Precipitation  so  called. 
The  length  of  this  eastern  side  is  not  far  from  fifteen  miles. 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  109-111. 

2  See  above,  p.  32. 


132 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


From  Jenm,  again,  the  lulls  that  skirt  the  southwestern  side 
of  the  plain  stretch  off  from  S.  E".  by  S.  to  N.  W.  by  N.,  and 
the  length  of  this  side  is  eighteen  or  twenty  miles.  On 
the  north,  the  hills,  which  at  first  rise  more  abruptly,  ex- 
tend in  the  general  direction  from  E.  N.  E.  to  W.  S.  W.,  and 
run  down  at  length  into  the  line  of  lower  hills  over  against 
Carmel.  The  length  of  this  northern  side  is  about  twelve 
miles.  This  large  triangle  is  everywhere  an  almost  level 
tract  of  unsurpassed  fertility ;  but  its  rich  soil  is  now  in 
great  part  neglected. 

East  of  this  triangle,  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  sends  out 
towards  the  brow  of  the  Jordan  valley  three  great  arms,  each 
nearly  an  hour  in  breadth,  and  separated  from  each"  other 
by  the  ridges  of  Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon.  That  is  to  say, 
these  two  parallel  ridges,  rising  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
great  plain,  divide  it  into  these  three  great  branches.  The 
remarkable  and  distinguishing  feature  of  these  three  portions 
of  the  plain  is,  that  while  both  the  northern  and  southern 
decline  towards  the  west,  and  their  waters  flow  off  through 
the  Kishon  to  the  Mediterranean ;  the  middle  arm  sinks 
down  between  them  eastward,  so  that  its  waters,  from  a 
point  within  the  triangle,  run  with  a  far  more  rapid  descent 
to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  at  Beisan.^ 

This  great  middle  arm  has  already  been  described  as  the 
valley  of  Jezreel?  The  northern  branch,  lying  between  Lit- 
tle Hermon  and  Tabor,  is  definitely  marked  by  the  high  and 
steeper  mountains  which  rise  abruptly  from  its  sides.  It 
extends  around  and  beyond  Tabor,  quite  to  the  brow  of  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  also  towards  the  north ;  but  in  this  part 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  362  [lU.  pp.  227,  228].   See  above,  pp.  26,  27. 

2  See  above,  pp.  91.  92. 


PLAINS  IN  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR.  133 


the  surface  is  uneven,  and  sometimes  rugged.^  The  south- 
ern arm  or  offset  of  the  great  plain  runs  up  southeastward 
from  Jenin,  between  the  hills  of  Samaria  on  the  south,  here 
higher  than  farther  west,  and  a  range  of  naked  rocky  heights 
on  the  north,  forming  the  northwestern  extension  of  the 
mountains  of  Gilboa  towards  Jezreel.  This  branch  of  the 
plain  is  about  three  quarters  of  an  hour  broad ;  and  rises 
with  a  perceptible  ascent  towards  the  southeast  for  four  or^ 
five  miles  beyond  Jenin.  On  its  sides  are  several  villages  ; 
and  on  the  higher  ground  beyond  the  arm,  lies  the  village 
of  Jelbon,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  name  Gilboa.^ 

Singular  as  it  may  appear,  this  great  plain  is  only  twice 
directly  referred  to  in  Scripture  ;  and  then  not  as  the  plain 
of  Jezreel,  as  from  later  usage  we  might  expect ;  but  as  the 
plain  (i^^rp?)  of  Megiddo,  so  called  from  the  place  of  that  name 
upon  its  western  quarter.^  It  is  a  Bik'ah,  a  plain  shut  in  by 
mountains  and  hills.  When  later,  under  the  Romans,  the 
name  Megiddo  was  lost,  and  the  same  place  was  called  Legio, 
the  plain  also  was  spoken  of  as  the  plain  of  Legio.^  It  was 
called  by  Josephus  simply  the  Great  Plain.^  In  Greek"  the 
name  'Jezreel'  appears  also  in  the  corrupted  form  Esdraela;^ 
and  hence  the  name  Esdraelon  for  the  plain.  It  is  found 
already  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  in  the  form  Es- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  330,  331  [III.  p.  180].  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
p.  340. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.'p.  31G  [TIL  p.  157]. 

s  2  Chron.  xxxv.  22;  Zech.  xii.  11.   The  English  Version  has  wrongly  'valley.' 

*  Eusebius,  ireSiW  t?)s  Aeyewi/os;  Jerome,  'campus  Legionis,'  Onomast.,  Arti- 
cles Gabatha,  Arhela,  Cimon,  etc. 

5  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  3. 1.  Antiq.,  8.  2.  3.  Reland,  Palaestina,  pp.  3GG,  367. 
So  too  Eusebius,  Onomast.,  Article  Itahyrion. 

^  ^Ea-Spa-nXd,  Eusebius,  Onomast.,  Article  Jezrael.  Hence  the  still  more  cor- 
rupt form  Stradela,  Itin.  Hieros.,  ed.  Wessel.,  p.  586. 


134 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


drelom  ;  and  was  current  in  the  middle  ages.^  At  the  pres- 
ent day  this  noble  plain  is  known  as  Merj  Ibn  'Amir. 

The  great  plain  and  its  environs  have  been  in  every  age 
the  scene  of  battles.  We  know  from  Scripture,  that  Deborah 
and  Barak,  descending  with  their  forces  from  Mount  Tabor, 
discomfited  the  host  of  Sisera  with  his  "  nine  hundred 
chariots  of  iron,"  from  Endor  to  Taanach  and  Megiddo, 
where  the  Kishon  swept  them  away.^  It  was  in  the  broad 
valley  below  Jezreel,  that  Gideon  achieved  his  triumph  over 
the  Midianites ;  and  again  Israel  pitched  in  the  same  valley 
before  the  fatal  battle  in  which  Saul  and  Jonathan  were  slain 
upon  Mount  Gilboa.^  It  was  likewise  in  the  plain,  not  far 
from  Aphek,  that  Ahab  and  the  Israelites  obtained  a  miracu- 
lous victory  over  the  Syrians  under  Benhadad  ;  while  near 
Megiddo  the  pious  King  Josiah,  attacking  the  Egyptian  host 
in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  their  monarch,  perished  in  the 
conflict.* 

South  of  the  middle  of  the  great  plain,  and  at  first  sight 
appearing  like  a  bay  or  offset  running  up  among  the  southern 
liills,  is  another  beautiful  plain,  not  mentioned  in  Scripture  ; 
though  once  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Judith,  as  lying  around 
Dothan.^  We  may  call  it,  therefore,  the  '  plain  of  Dothan.' 
It  is  separated  from  the  great  plain  by  a  narrow  tract  of 
swells  or  rolling  land  ;  through  which  pass  one  or  more 
valleys,  draining  the  northern  part  to  Esdraelon.  The  length 
of  the  plain  of  Dothan,  from  Burkin  in  the  north  to  its 
southern  end  beyond  Ya'bud,  is  five  or  six  miles.  Its 
breadth  is  irregular  ;  since  various  offsets  run  up  from  it 

1  Judith  i.  8,  iv.  5  [G],  vii.  3.   Brocardus,  cc.  5,  6,   Adrichom.,  p.  35. 

2  Ps.  Lxxxiii.  9,  10;  Judg.  iv.  12-15,  v.  19-21. 
S  Judg.  vi.  33,  vii.;  1  Sam  xxix.  1,  xxx. 

4  1  Kings  XX.  26-30;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20-24;  2  Kings  xxiii.  29,  30. 

5  Judith  iv.  6,  toC  TreS/ou  tou  irArjo-tou  Aeoi^oi/x. 


PLAINS  IN  THE  IIILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR.  135 


among  the  adjacent  hills  ;  as  at  Kefr  Kud  (^Caparcotia)  in  the 
northwest,  and  at  Kiibatieh  in  the  southeast.^  The  plain 
sweeps  around  the  hill  on  which  Ya'bud  stands,  towards  the 
S.  S.  W:,  and  is  drained  off  in  that  direction  by  a  valley.  In 
the  broadest  part  of  the  plain,  between  Ya'bud  and  Kuba^ 
tieh,  but  nearer  the  latter,  stands  Tell  Dothan,  the  site  of 
ancient  Dothan^  with  a  fountain. ^  Here  then  is  the  plain 
where  Joseph's  brethren  were  feeding  their  father's  flocks 
when  Joseph  visited  them,  and  was  sold  by  them  to  Midi- 
anites,  and  carried  into  slavery  in  Egypt.  The  route  of  the 
Midianites  was  obviously  the  same  that  is  now  followed. 
Crossing  the  Jordan  to  Bethshean  and  Jezreel,  their  way  then 
led  through  this  fine  plain ;  and  down  the  valley  at  its  south- 
western quarter  to  the  western  plain,  and  so  to  Ramleh  and 
Egypt.3 

Not  far  southeast  of  the  plain  of  Dothan,  on  the  east  of 
Sanur  and  overlooked  by  that  fortress,  is  spread  out  another 
beautiful  plain,  oval  or  round,  in  form,  three  or  four  miles 
in  diameter,  and  surrounded  by  picturesque  hills  not  very 
elevated.  It  is  perfectly  level,  with  a  soil  of  rich  dark 
loam,  exceedingly  fertile.  The  plain  has  no  outlet  for  its 
waters  ;  which  therefore  in  winter  collect  upon  it  and  form  a 
temporary  lake.  The  Arabs  say,  the  plain  drinks  up  its  own 
waters.  It  is  planted  chiefly  with  millet,  a  summer  crop  ; 
though  in  some  parts,  where  the  surface  is  higher,  wheat  is 
also  sown.  The  plain  is  called  Merj  el-Ghuruk,  equivalent  to 
Drowned  Meadow.^ 

Along  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains  Ebal  and  Geri- 

1  Wolcott  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  76.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  317, 
318  [III.  p.  154]. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  121, 122. 

3  Gen.  xxxvii.  17-36.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  122. 
*  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  313  [III.  pp.  152,  153J. 


136 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


zim  lies  the  fine  plain  known  as  the  Mukhna,  extending  from 
S.  S.  W.  to  N.  N.  E.  for  eight  or  nine  miles,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  one  and  a  half  or  two  miles ;  it  being  narrower  in 
the  south  and  north,  and  broader  in  the  middle.  A-t  about 
two  thirds  of  its  length  from  south  to  north,  the  valley  of 
Nabulus  comes  in  from  the  west  between  Gerizim  and  Ebal. 
The  hills  along  the  eastern  side  are  lower  but  rocl^y,  and 
often  project  into  the  plain.  Directly  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Nabulus  valley,  an  offset  or  arm  of  the  plain  runs  up 
at  right  angles  among  these  eastern  hills,  for  nearly  three 
miles  in  length  by  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  Between  it  and 
the  Mukhna  lies  a  low  ridge  of  rocks. 

The  southern  part  of  the  Muklina  is  drained  by  the  be- 
ginning of  Wady  Kanah,  which  passes  out  by  a  deep  chasm 
in  the  western  mountains.  But  from  a  point  considerably 
south  of  Nabulus  the  water-course  of  the  plain  runs  north, 
near  the  base  of  the  eastern  hills.  It  passes  on  the  east  of 
the  low  ridge  between  the  MiiUhna  and  the  eastern  offset ; 
receives  the  water-course  of  that  arm  ;  and  then  passing  out 
again,  lies  close  along  the  base  of  the  eastern  mountain. 
North  of  the  valley  of  Nabulus  the  Mukhna  soon  contracts, 
and  becomes  rather  a  slope  from  the  side  of  Ebal  to  the 
water-course.  The  latter  passes  down  northeast,  by  a  nar- 
row chasm  with  singularly  broken  and  contorted  strata,  to 
join  Wady  Fari'a.  Both  the  Mukhna  and  its  eastern  arm 
produce  good  crops  of  wheat  and  millet ;  though  the  soil 
seems  to  be  less  fertile  than  that  of  most  of  the  other 
plains.^ 

The  Mukhna  is  not  directly  mentioned  in  Scripture.  It 
was,  however,  probably  the  place  where  the  sons  of  Jacob 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  273,  274, 279  [HI.  pp.  92-94,  101,  102].  Later  Bib- 
lical Researches,  pp.  298,  299. 


PLAINS  m  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  THE  GHOR.  137 

fed  their  father's  flocks  at  Shechem,  before  they  went  to 
Dothaii.^  The  Shalem  near  Shechem,  to  which  Jacob  first 
came  on  his  return  from  Padan-aram,  was  apparently  the 
Sahm  of  the  present  day,  a  village  in  the  northwest  part  of 
the  smaller  eastern  plain. 2  Jacob's  well,  where  our  Lord 
talked  with  the  Samaritan  woman,  is  still  seen  in  the  mouth 
of  the  valley  of  Nabulus ;  and  around  it  is  "  the  parcel  of 
ground  that  Jacob  gave  to  his  son  Joseph."  ^ 

In  Isaiah  we  read  of  a  valley  of  Gibeon,  according  to  the 
English  Version  ;  but  the  Hebrew  has  it  a  vallei/  or  plain  at 
Gibeon  (p-^-'S  p^.?).*  The  direct  reference  is  probably  to  the 
tract  or  valley  between  the  ridge  of  Gibeon  and  the  higher 
one  of  Neby  Samwil.  This  is  strictly  an  ^Emek;  but  it  is 
only  an  arm  of  the  fine  plain  which  extends  for  two  or  three 
miles  on  the  north  and  west  of  Gibeon  nearly  to  the  brow 
the  mountains.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  productive.  The 
western  part  is  drained  by  the  heads  of  Wady  Suleiman; 
while  the  waters  of  the  eastern  portions  flow  off  southeast  to 
the  great  Wady  Beit  Hanina,  which  after  several  changes  of 
name  reaches  the  western  plain  as  Wady  es-Surar.^  The 
allusion  of  the  prophet  is  to  the  battles  fought  near  Gibeon  ; 
especially  that  in  which  Joshua  discomfited  the  five  kings, 
who  had  come  up  against  Gibeon.^ 

The  valley  or  plain  (P^??)  of  Rephaim  (the  Giants^  is  sit- 
uated S.  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem ;  and  the  road  to  Bethlehem 

1  Gen.  xxxvii.  12-14. 

2  Gen.  xxxiii.  18.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  279  [III.  p.  102].  Later  Biblical 
Researches,  p.  298. 

s  John  iv.  5,  C;  Gen  xxxiii.  19,  xlviii.  22;  Josh.  xxiv.  32.    Biblical  Researches, 
n.  p.  286  [III.  p.  lOS].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  132. 
*  Isa.  xxviii.  21. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  454  [IL  p.  135]. 

«  Josh.  X.  1-11;  comp.  1  Chron.  xiv.  16.   See  more  above,  pp.  115, 116. 
18 


138  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

passes  along  on  its  eastern  side.  It  is  higher  than  the 
valley  of  Hinnom  ;  and  is  separated  from  it  only  by  a  low, 
rocky  swell.  The  hills  around  it  are  also  not  elevated.  It 
is  drained  towards  the  southwest  by  Wady  el-Werd.  It  has 
already  been  described  among  the  valleys.^ 

In  speaking  of  king  Uzziah's  husbandry,  it  is  said,  "  he 
had  much  cattle,  both  in  the  low  country  and  in  the 
plains."  2  The  Hebrew  word  here  rendered  '  plains  '(lii::^^) 
signifies  level  ground^  a  level  spot  or  tract  ;  and  as  here 
contrasted  with  the  '  low  country '  or  Sephela,  would  seem 
to  refer  to  level  ground  or  level  tracts  in  the  higher  hill- 
country  of  Judali. 

In  the  English  Version  we  read  of  the  plains  of  Moreh  and 
the  plain  of  the  Magicians  (^Meonemim~) ,  near  Shechem;  also 
the  plain  of  Tabor  near  Jerusalem,  and  the  plain  of  Mamre, 
near  Hebron.-^    But  the  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered 

'  plains,'  refers  rather  to  a  strong  durable  tree,  especially  an 
oak;  and  is  so  rendered  by  all  the  ancient  interpreters. 
The  above  passages  ought  therefore  to  read,  the  oak  of  the 
Magicians,  of  Tabor  ;  the  oaks  of  Moreh,  of  Mamre. 

UL   PLAINS  IN  THE  GHOR. 

The  Ghor  itself,  as  we  have  seen,  is  strictly  a  Bik''ah,  or 
plain  between  two  ranges  of  mountains  ;  and  as  such  its  va- 
rious portions  have  already  been  described.  It  is  necessary 
liere  only  to  enumerate  these  different  parts,  and  refer  to 
our  former  descriptions. 

1.  The  basin  of  the  Huleh  ;  including  the  valley  or  plain  of 
Lebanon,  and  the  valley  at  Beth^ehob  ;  see  pp.  75,  76,  and  81. 


1  Sec  more  above,  p.  116  .  ^2  Chron.  xxvi.  10. 

3  Deut.  xi.  30;  Judg.  ix.  37;  1  Sam.  x,  3;  Gen.  xiii.  18,  xiv.  13. 


PLAINS  EAST  OF  THE  GHOR. 


139 


2.  The  Plain  el-Batihah,  at  the  north  end  of  the  lake  of 
Tiberias  ;  see  p.  77. 

3.  Tlie  plain  of  Gennesareth,  el-  Ghuweir,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  same  lake  ;  see  p.  77. 

4.  Opposite  Beisan,  from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  Sakut, 
called  by  Josephus  the  Great  Plain;  see  p.  78. 

5.  The  plain  el-Kurdwa  in  connection  with  Wadj  Fari'a ; 
see  p.  79. 

6.  The  plain  of  Jericho,  south  of  Kurn  Surtabeh ;  see 
pp.  79,  81. 

7.  Tlie plains  (^Arboth')  of  Jericho,  the  plains  (^Arboth')  of 
Moab  ;  see  p.  74. 

8.  The  plain  or  circuit  QKikkar')  of  Jordan,  in  general ; 
see  p.  85. 

For  other  valleys  or  valley-plains  within  the  Ghor,  see 
pp.  81,  83. 

IV.   PLAINS  EAST  OF  THE  GHOR. 

For  the  plain  or  valley  (J^^ps)  of  Mizpeh,  eastward  of  the 
basin  of  the  Huleh,  see  p.  85. 

East  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  lies  the  great  plain  of  Haurdn, 
now  called  en-Nukrah,  an  immense  level  tract,  which  may 
be  called  table-land  as  compared  with  the  depressed  lake  and 
Ghor.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Jebel  Heish,  the  lake, 
and  Jcl)el  'Ajliln  ;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Lcjah  (the  ancient 
Trachonitis)  and  the  mountain  of  Hauran.  It  extends  from 
the  southernmost  sources  and  affluents  of  the  river  A'waj 
(the  Pharpar)  in  the  north  to  -the  unexplored  desert  in  the 
south.  The  length  is  from  forty  to  forty-five  miles  ;  the 
greatest  breadth  perhaps  thirty-five  opposite  tlie  lake.  The 
surface  is  greatly  undulating,  with  occasional  low  Tells 
rising  in  various  parts.    The  whole  plain  is  volcanic,  being 


140 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


an  outlier  of  the  vast  volcanic  region  on  the  east.  The  soil 
is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  almost  without  stones  ;  in  general 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  arable  throughout.  With  the  higher 
tracts  of  Haur^n  it  is  regarded  as  the  granary  of  Damascus. 

The  plain  is  drained  wholly  (except  the  few  "Wadys  that 
run  to  the  lake)  by  the  river  Yarmuk  or  Hieromax  and  its 
many  branches  ;  the  chief  of  which  have  their  beginning  on 
Jebel  Hauran,  and  wind  as  deep  chasms  through  the  plain. 
The  elevation  of  the  western  part  of  the  plain  is  estimated 
by  Russegger  at  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet; 
showing  a  rapid  ascent  from  the  borders  of  the  lake. 

This  plain  is  the  ancient  Hauran  of  Ezekiel,^  the  Amaritis 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  though  some  of  the  northern 
portion  may  have  been  included  in  the  districts  of  Iturea^ 
Trachonitis,  and  Gaulonitis.  It  was  all.  comprised  in  the 
Bashan  of  the  Hebrews ;  and  belonged  to  Manasseh.^ 

There  remains  to  be  noted  the  plain  of  the  Bclka,  as  it  is 
now  called,  the  elevated  plateau  along  the  summit  of  the 
mountains  which  border  the  Dead  Sea  upon  the  east.  This 
tract  was  given  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad.  It  extends 
from  near  cs-Salt  to  Kerak  and  beyond  ;  a  distance  of  some 
forty-five  to  fifty  miles  in  length,  by  a  breadth  of  ten  to  fifteen 
miles.  As  compared  with  the  high  land  on  the  west  of  the 
sea,  around  Hebron,  the  elevation  of  this  plain  cannot  well 
be  less  than  about  three  thousand  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean, or  four  thousand  three  hundred  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.3    On  the  west  the  plain  is  skirted  by  the  hills  and  ridges 

1  Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  18. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  IH.,  App.,  p.  150,  Burclchardt,  Syria,  p.  285  sq. 
Porter's  Handbook,  p.  499.  "Wetzstein  in  Zcitschr.  fUr  allg.  Erdk.,  Aug.  1859, 
pp.  130,  131.   Russe<?ger,  IH.  p.  215.   Comp.  above,  pp.  54-56. 

3  See  above,  p.  60. 


PLAINS  EAST  OF  TIIE  GHOR. 


141 


forming  tlio  crests  or  brojv  of  the  lofty  mountains  which  rise 
steeply  from  the  sea ;  while  from  the  plain  itself  these  crests 
appear  but  little  elevated.  On  the  east  is  the  desert,  on 
about  the  same  level ;  sometimes  with  chains  of  hills  along 
the  border.  Many  water-courses,  and  some  deep  chasms  (as 
that  of  the  Arnon)  pass  off  through  the  plain  westward,  and 
break  down  through  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  Through 
tliese  chasms  there  are  frequent  views  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  country  beyond.  In  the  plain  there  are  isolated  Tells  ; 
but  it  has  not  many  trees,  except  along  the  western  part, 
where  there  is  considerable  wood  in  some  places.  The  soil 
is  very  fertile,  but  is  left  untilled ;  the  whole  region  being 
given  up  to  pasturage  ;  for  the  excellency  of  which  it  is 
greatly  celebrated.^ 

This  high  plaia  of  the  Belka  is  several  times  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  approach  of  the 
Hebrews  to  the  Promised  Land.^  The  Hebrew  word  is  here 
Mishur  ("ii'iii"*?),  signifying  '  a  level  tract,'  and  rendered  in  the 
English  Version,  by  '  plain,  plain  country.'  Portions  of  this 
'  plain  country  '  are  also  definitely  referred  to  in  two  other 
passages. 

When  the  Hebrews,  in  approaching  Palestine,  turned  from 
the  eastern  desert  into  the  inhabited  country  north  of  the 
Arnon,  they  went  (according  to  the  Hebrew)  "  from  Bamoth 
to  the  plain  or  basin  Q^"^^^)  which  is  in  the  country  (field) 
of  Moab,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  which  overlooketh  the  wilder- 
ness." ^  This  Gai  or  basin  was  perhaps  some  depressed  tract 
in  the  plain  near  to  the  heights  or  crest  of  Pisgah,  where  the 

1  Seetzen,  Eeisen,  I.  pp.  407,  410.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  364-366.  Irby  and 
Mangles,  1847,  pp.  142,  146.   Sec  above,  pp.  59-61,  67,  68. 

2  Deut.  iii.  10,  iv.  43;  Josh.  xiii.  9,  16,  17,  21,  xx.  8;  Jer.  xlviii.  21. 

3  Num.  xxi.  20;  comp.  Num.  xxxiii.  47,  48.   Sec  above,  p.  63. 


142  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 

waters  were  gathered  in  winter,  iind  flowed  off  through  a 
common  channel.  Or,  the  word  Gai  might  possibly  be  re- 
ferred to  the  whole  plain,  as  being  skirted  on  each  side  by 
hills ;  just  as  the  Ghor  itself  is  spoken  of  as  a  Gai} 

In  Genesis  it  is  related,  that  Chedorlaomer  and  the  kings 
with  him  "  smote  the  Emims  in  the  plain  (!iv^)  of  Kiriath- 
aun.^^^  The  city  Kiriathaim  lay,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the 
southern  part  of  Jebel  'Attarus  ;  and  the  plain  in  question 
was  therefore  probably  along  the  eastern  base  of  that  moun- 
tain.^ 


1  See  above,  p.  82. 
3  See  above,  p.  67. 


2  Gen.  xiv.  5. 


CHAPTER  II. 

WATERS. 

When  Moses  led  Israel  towards  the  Promised  Land,  he 
described  it  to  them  by  way  of  contrast  with  Egypt ;  where, 
without  rain,  their  supply  of  water  had  to  be  raised  from  the 
Nile  or  from  wells  :  "  For  the  land  is  not  as  the  land  of 
Egypt,  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed 
and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,^  as  a  garden  of  herbs ;  but 
the  land,  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of  hills  and 
valleys,  and  drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven."  "  For 
the  Lord  thy  God  bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land,  a  land  of 
brooks  of  water,  of  fountains  and  depths,  that  spring  out  of 
valleys  and  hills."  ^  What  Palestine  was  then,  such  it  is 
now  ;  a  land  of  fountains  and  brooks  in  winter  ;  the  flow  of 
which,  however,  from  the  warmth  of  the  climate  and  the 
unclouded  sunshine  of  a  long  summer,  is  confined  within 
brief  courses  for  a  large  portion  of  the  year.  While  in  sum- 
mer there  are  few  streams,  there  are  yet  many  fountains  ; 
which  supply  water  for  man  and  beast,  and  sometimes  for 
irrigation. 

1  RefeiTing  probably  to  a  machine  for  raising  water,  turned  by  the  foot;  see 
Biblical  Researches,  I.,  Note  II.,  at  the  end. 

2  Deut.  xi.  10,  11,  viii.  7. 


144 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND, 


SECTION  L 

RIVERS  AND  MINOR  STREAMS. 

The  River  of  Palestine  is  the  Jordan.  No  other  stream 
in  the  coiintrj  strictly  deserves  the  name  of  river ;  unless  it 
be  one  or  two  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Jordan  from  the  east. 
On  the  coast  the  streams  of  the  Belus,  the  lower  Kishon,and 
the  'Aujeh  have  considerable  water ;  but  the  permanent 
course  of  each  is  very  short. 

I.   THE  JORDA^T  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 

The  Jordan,  after  the  junction  of  all  its  head  streams, 
expands  into  the  lake  of  the  Hdleh.  Then,  after  rushing 
down  a  rocky  chasm  for  several  miles,  it  again  spreads  out 
into  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  From  this  lake  its  course  is 
comparatively  uninterrupted,  until  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea. 

Hence  the  Jordan  may  be  treated  of  in  three  divisions,  viz ; 

The  Upper  Jordan,  extending  from  the  sources  to  the  lake 
of  Tiberias.  The  direct  length  of  this  part,  from  Tell  el- 
Kady  and  Banias  to  that  lake,  is  about  twenty-five  miles ; 
the  source,  at  Hasbeiya,  being  some  ten  miles  further  north. 

The  Middle  Jordan,  from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  the  nar- 
row pass  opposite  Kurn  Surtabeli ;  a  direct  distance  of  about 
forty-five  miles. 

Tlie  Lower  Jordan,  from  Kurn  Surtabeli  to  the  Dead  Sea ; 
a  distance  of  about  twenty  miles. 


TIIE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


145 


The  whole  length  of  the  Jordan,  therefore,  from  H^sbeiya 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  including  the  two  lakes,  is  not  far  from 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  miles. 

Hie  valley  of  the  Jordan,  as  usually  spoken  of,  is  the  Ghor, 
the  broad  depressed  plain  shut  in  between  two  ranges  of 
mountains.  But  below  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the  Jordan 
flows  in  its  own  well-defined  and  still  deeper  valley,  winding 
through  the  plain  of  the  Ghor.  Along  and  within  this  deeper 
valley,  the  channel  of  the  river  winds  exceedingly ;  and  is, 
in  most  parts,  fringed  by  a  narrow  tract  of  verdure  on 
each  side,  made  up  of  trees,  bushes,  reeds,  and  luxuriant 
herbage. 

N.AME.  The  name  Jordan  comes  to  us  from  the  Hebrew 
through  the  Greek  QyT^'^,  'IopBdv7]<;),  the  Hebrew  name  being 
always  written  in  the  Old  Testament,  except  in  two  places, 
with  the  article,  the  Jordan  C'n*':?:).  It  comes  from  the  root 
'T^^j  to  g'O  doivn,  or  spoken  of  a  stream,  to  flow ;  honce  the 
Jordan  signifies  '  the  flowing,'  perhaps  witli  some  allusion  to 
its  rapid  descent  and  swift  current.  At  the  present  day  it  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  esh-SherVah,  'the  watering-place;* 
sometimes  with  the  addition  of  el-Kebtr,  '  the  Great.'  Yet 
the  name  eZ- £/rc?w7Z  (Jordan)  is  not  unknown  in  Arabian 
writers.^ 

An  early  and  current  derivation,  coming  down  at  least 
from  the  time  of  Jerome,  regards  the  word  Jordan  as  mado 
up  from  the  names  of  the  two  streams  from  Banias  and 
Dan ;  the  former,  it  was  said,  being  called  Jor  ('^i<']),  and  tho 
other  Dan.  That  all  this  is  without  foundation,  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  the  name  Jordan  was  current  in  the  days  of 


1  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.  p.  147. 
Jordanes. 

19 


Schulten's  Index  in  Vit.  Saladin,  Article  Fluvius 


146 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


Abraham  and  the  patriarchs,  at  least  five  centuries  before 
the  name  of  Dan  was  given  to  the  city  in  question.^ 

Upper  Jordan.  Sources.  The  Jordan  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  three  large  perennial  streams,  issuing  from 
immense,  fountains,  near  Hasbeiya,  at  Tell  el-Kady,  and  at 
Banias.  All  along  the  base  of  Hermon,  indeed,  there  are 
springs  and  rivulets,  which  run  to  those  streams  ;  and  large 
fountains  also  send  their  waters  to  the  lake  of  the  Huleh ; 
but  no  one  reckons  these  among  the  proper  sources  of  the 
Jordan.  So  too  the  brook  in  Wady  Zaa'reh,  wliich  comes 
down  to  Banias  ;  and  the  Derdarah,.the  streamlet  from  Mcrj 
'Ayun,  are  neither  of  them  perennial  in  their  whole  course  ; 
and  are  therefore  not  to  be  regarded  as  permanent  sources 
of  the  Jordan.2 

The  Hdshdny.  The  stream  from  Hasbeiya  is  called  Nahr 
Hasbany.  It  flows  along  the  great  Wady  et-Teim,  which 
runs  up  at  the  western  base  of  Hermon  as  far  as  to  the  region 
around  Rasheiya  ;  and  then,  descending,  continues  on  till  it 
is  merged  in  the  Buka'a,  near  the  great  fountain  of  'Anjar. 
The  whole  of  Wady  et-Teim  is  north  of  the  line  of  Palestine 
proper  ;  and  we  speak  of  it  here  only  with  reference  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  Hasbany. 

The  source  of  the  Hasbany  is  ten  or  twelve  miles  in  a 
direct  line  above  the  mouth  of  Wady  et-Teim  ;  near  the 
opening  of  the  side  valley  which  leads  up  east  to  Hasbeiya, 
and  almost  a  mile  and  a  half  distant  from  that  town.  Here 
a  ridge  running  down  on  the  north  side  of  the  short  lateral 
valley,  terminates  in  a  volcanic  bluff,  at  the  foot  of  which 
the  fountain  bursts  forth  in  the  very  channel  of  Wady  et- 

1  Gen.  xiii.  10,  11,  xxxii.  10,  1.  10,  11;  comp.  Judg.  xviii.  29.  See  Later  Bib- 
lical Researches,  p.  412,  note. 

2  See  above,  pp.  84,  89. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


147 


Teim  ;  sending  forth  at  once  a  large  volume  of  water.  At 
present  a  strong  and  permanent  dam  is  thrown  across  just 
below  the  fountain.  A  head  of  water  is  thus  raised  and  a 
small  pond  formed,  from  which  the  water  is  turned  into  a 
wide  mill-race.  In  this  way  all  the  beauty  and  romance  of 
the  spot  are  destroyed.  The  fountain,  as  such,  is  not  visible ; 
except  that  just  above  the  dam  the  water  is  seen  boiling  up 
on  the  surface  of  the  pool,  and  quite  across  it.  There  are  a 
few  trees  along  the  banks,  and  a  large  rock  rises  on  the  east 
side  of  the  pool.  About  thirty  rods  below  the  fountain  there 
is  a  bridge  across  the  stream. 

This  fountain  is  the  remotest  perennial  source  of  the 
Jordan  ;  though  never  alluded  to  by  any  ancient  writer. 
There  are,  indeed,  small  fountains  further  up  the  valley,  but 
their  waters  do  not  reach  this  spot.  Yet  in  the  rainy  season 
a  great  body  of  water  descends  from  the  upper  part  of  Wady 
et-Teim  and  the  heights  of  Jebel  esh-Sheikh  around  Ra- 
sheiya,  causing  a  formidable  torrent  along  the  valley.^ 

Wady  et-Teim  is,  in  many  parts,  full  of  spurs  and  ridges 
jutting  out  from  the  base  of  Hermon.  Along  the  narrow 
dell  thus  formed  in  the  west,  the  limpid  stream  of  the  Has- 
bany  rushes  murmuring,  usually  fordable,  except  as  some- 
times almost  hidden  in  deep  chasms.  About  six  miles  below 
Hasbeiya  a  fine  stream  comes  in  from  the  east,  from  'Ain 
Seraiyib,  a  large  fountain  at  the  foot  of  Hermon.  This  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  main  feeders  of  the  Hasbany  ;  and  is 
said  to  be  far  more  copious  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
This  stream,  as  we  saw  it  in  May,  was  about  one  fourth  part 
as  large  as  the  Hasbany.^ 

At  some  distance  further  down,  and  nearly  opposite  Khi- 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  378. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  415. 


148  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

yam,  the  hills  and  ridges  within  Wady  et-Teim  disappear; 
and  the  whole  valley  opens  out  into  a  wide  and  tolerably 
level  plain,  which  thus  connects  with  the  basin  of  the  Huleh. 
The  rapid  descent  of  this  part  of  the  valley,  and  the  steps 
and  terraces  by  which  it  joins  the  lower  plain,  have  already 
been  described.^  It  is  remarkable  that  the  river  Hasbany, 
on  issuing  from  its  mountain  glen  into  the  great  volcanic 
plain  towards  the  Huleh,  does  not  follow  the  lowest  part  of 
the  plain  ;  but  keeps  along  in  its  own  deep  chasm  through 
•the  western  and  highest  plateau.  This  chasm  the  river  has 
worn  for  itself,  to  the  depth  of  from  two  to  three  hundred 
feet,  in  the  hard  trap  rock  ;  it  is  quite  narrow,  with  very 
steep  and  in  some  places  perpendicular  banks.  Where  the 
river  flows  through  the  lower  terraces,  the  chasm  is  of  course 
less  deep.  About  a  mile  below  Ghujar  there  is  a  bridge  over 
the  stream.2 

We  forded  the  river  above  Ghujar,  near  Luweizeh  ;  de- 
scending into  the  chasm  steeply  and  with  difficulty,  among 
the  trap  boulders  and  globular  basalt.  Five  minutes  below 
the  ford  is  another  large  fountain,  called  Luweizany,  burst- 
ing forth  under  isolated  strata  of  limestone  rock  on  the  west- 
ern margin  of  the  stream.  Thickets  of  oleanders  and  marshy 
ground  render  access  to  the  fountain  difficult ;  but  it  is  evi- 
dently quite  large,  and  the  stream  below  is  very  much  aug- 
mented.^ 

As  the  Hasbany  reaches  the  lower  terraces  and  plains, 
much  water  is  drawn  off  from  it  for  the  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion. 

Tell  el-Kddy,  The  Ledddn.  About  a  mile  and  a  half 
south  by  east  from  the  southwestern  corner  of  Hermon, 

1  Sco  above,  p.  75.  2  Later  Biblical  Pvosearches,  pp.  389,  390. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  389. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


149 


nearly  in  a  line  with  its  western  base,  and  about  midway  of 
the  Huleli  from  west  to  cast,  rises  the  isolated  Tell  el-Kady. 
It  stands  connected  with  the  step  or  offset  between  two  pla- 
teaus ;  so  that  while  its  height  on  the  northern  part  is  only 
some  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the  plain,  the  southern  side 
is  twice  as  high  as  the  northern,  rising  above  the  plain  at  its 
•southern  base'  not  less  than  eighty  or  ninety  feet.  The  form 
is  oblong,  but  irregular  ;  stretching  from  west  to  east.  The| 
top  is  an  area  of  several  acres,  somewhat  highest  towards  the 
east,  and  in  part  cultivated.  Singularly  enough,  this  Tell 
and  offset  are  the  dividing  line  between  the  volcanic  and 
limestone  formations.  The  Tell  and  all  the  plain  north  are 
volcanic ;  while  all  the  plain  of  the  Huleh  further  south  is 
limestone.  Some  have  held  the  Tell  to  have  been  the  crater 
of  an  extinct  volcano ;  but  geologists  do  not  favor  the  idea. 
Nor,  if  so,  is  it  easy  to  account  for  the  absence  of  all  volcanic 
phenomena  on  the  southern  and  lower  quarter.  The  eleva- 
tion of  this  spot  above  the  sea  is  given  at  six  hundred  and 
forty-seven  feet.  The  Tell  was  probably  the  main  site  of  the 
ancient  city  Dan. 

On  approaching  Tell  el-Kady  from  the  west,  the  first  object 
which  strikes  the  eye  is  an  immense  stream  of  the  most  lim- 
pid water  pouring  from  its  western  end.  This  portion  of 
the  Tell  appears  as  if  built  up  with  large  trap  boulders  ;  and 
through  these  the  water  gushes  out  several  feet  above  the 
base.  It  forms  a  little  lake  at  the  bottom  ;  and  then  rushes 
down  a  steep  channel  to  the  next  lower  plateau.  This  is 
one  of  the  largest  fountains  in  the  world  ;  the  stream  that 
issues  from  it  being  not  less  than  four  times  as  large  as  the 
Hasbany,  even  after  all  the  accessions  which  the  latter  re- 
ceives. 

Not  all  the  water,  however,  from  the  interior  of  the  Tell, 


150 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


escapes  in  this  way.  In  the  surface  of  the  Tell,  directly 
above  the  great  fountain,  is  a  cavity  of  some  extent,  into 
which  the  water  also  rises ;  and  runs  off,  as  a  considerable 
stream,  through  a  break  in  the  edge  of  the  Tell,  tumbling 
down  its  southwestern  side.  This  stream  drives  two  mills  ; 
and  furnishes  water-power  enough  for  any  number.  It  then 
goes  to  join  the  other  river.  This  of  itself  woul&  be  regarded 
as  quite  a  large  fountain.  Just  in  the  break  of  the  Tell 
stands  a  noble  oak  (Sindian),  with  its  vast  boughs  spreading 
widely  around,  and  supplying  a  grateful  shade,  under  which 
many  travellers  have  rested.^ 

The  water  of  the  Leddan,  as  it  rushes  down  the  various 
declivities  or  offsets,  is  used  to  drive  several  mills  ;  and  large 
quantities  are  taken  out  on  both  sides  and  distributed  for 
irrigation.  A  small  branch  or  canal,  called  Bureij,  is  carried 
along  parallel  on  the  west,  which  supplies  water  to  the  fields, 
and  also  gathers  up  again  the  superfluous  waters,  and  joins 
the  main  stream  some  distance  below.^ 

Nahr  Bunids.  In  the  angle  of  the  mountains,  formed  by 
the  lofty  sides  of  Hermon  on  the  north,  and  the  lower 
mountains  that  skirt  the  Huleh  on  the  east,  on  its  own 
beautiful  terrace,  is  situated  the  town  of  Banias.  Back  of 
the  town,  in  the  very  nook  of  the  mountauis,  bursts  forth  the 
great  fountain,  the  most  picturesque  and  celebrated  of  all 
the  sources  of  the  Jordan.  The  fountain  issues  from  the 
lower  western  end  of  the  thin,  sharp  ridge  cut  off  by 
Wady  Kushabeh  from  the  flank  of  Hermon,  on  which  ridge, 
higli  up,  stands  the  ancient  fortress.^  The  fountain,  there- 
fore, is  wholly  south  of  that  Wady ;  and  has  no  visible  con- 
nection whatever  with  the  mountain.    The  ridge  terminates 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  390-392. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  394,  395.  ^  ggg  above,  p.  81. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


151 


here  in  a  precipice  of  limestone  rock  ;  the  whole  terrace  also 
being  of  limestone ;  but  the  volcanic  rocks  begin  immedi- 
ately above.  The  strata  of  the  precipice  are  greatly  in- 
clined ;  and  the  front  would  seem  to  have  been,  in  the  course 
of  time,  much  broken  away,  probably  by  earthquakes.  The 
main  precipice  faces  about  S.  W.  by  W.,  and  rises  from  a 
hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  water  of  the 
fountain.  At  the  base  of  this  there  appears  to  have  been 
anciently  a  cavern,  from  which  the  water  probably  issued. 
But  in  consequence  of  the  breaking  away  of  the  rock  above, 
the  former  front  part  of  the  cavern  is  now  filled  up  with  the 
fallen  rocks  and  stones,  which  also  extend  out  for  some 
distance  before  it.  Through  the  bottom  of  this  mass  of  rocks 
and  fragments  the  water  now  gushes  forth.  Further  to- 
wards the  south  also,  where  apparently  there  was  no  cavern, 
there  is  the  same  heaping  up  of  debris  along  the  foot  of  the 
precipice  ;  and  through  this  too,  in  like  manner,  the  water 
issues  less  abundantly,  spreading  itself  perhaps  from  the 
cavern. 

This  spot  and  cavern  were  the  ancient  Panium,  and  hero 
the  first  Herod  erected  a  temple  in  honor  of  Augustus.^  In 
the  face  of  the  precipice,  south  of  the  cavern,  and  now  only 
just  above  the  debris,  are  several  votive  niches,  with  in- 
scriptions. Others  may  likewise  exist,  now  covered  by  the 
stones. 

From  beneath  and  through  the  mass  of  rocks  and  stones, 
which  thus  fill  up  and  hide  the  entrance  of  the  cavern, 
gushes  forth  the  Nahr  Banias,  a  full  and  rushing  river, 
twice  as  large  as  the  stream  from  the  fountain  near  Has- 
beiya.  The  water  is  of  the  purest  and  finest  quality,  limpid, 
bright,  and  sparkling.    Some  of  the  waters  are  carried  in 

1  Joseph.  Antiq.,  15.  10.  3. 


152 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


channels  through  the  village ;  but  the  main  stream  passes 
down  on  the  north.  Gathering  to  itself  the  other  streams 
just  below,  and  yet  itself  distributing  its  waters  over  the 
terrace  and  portions  of  the  adjacent  western  plain  for  the 
purposes  of  irrigation,  it  rushes  onward  in  a  ravine  of  its 
own,  with  swift  course,  towards  the  southwest,  down  to  the 
plain  below,  and  so  to  the  lower  Hulch.  It  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  all  the  streams  of  the  Jordan.^ 

Junction  of  the  Streams.  Until  the  year  1852,  it  was  not 
known  whether  the  three  head  streams  of  the  Jordan  entered 
the  lake  of  the  Huleh  separately,  or  formed  a  junction  above 
the  lake.  To  determine  this  problem,  in  May  of  that  year 
we  struck  down  from  Tell  el-Kady  into  the  Huleh,  on  the 
east  of  the  Leddan.  After  descending  several  steps  and 
terraces,  through  tracts  of  the  richest  fertility,  well  watered 
by  irrigation,  but  without  a  trace  of  marshy  land,  we  came  in 
one  hour  from  the  Tell  to  the  Nalir  Banias.  It  was  hero 
flowing  rapidly  in  a  depressed  but  open  valley.  We  then  rose 
to  a  somewhat  higher  plain  on  the  right ;  and  soon  fell  in 
with  the  Leddan,  running,  with  a  swift  current,  in  a  deep, 
narrow  channel,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
plain.  It  was  almost  hidden  by  the  canes  and  bushes  that 
line  the  banks.  Five  minutes  later,  we  came  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  two  streams,  in  a  broad,  open  area,  where  the 
river  spreads  itself  out.  TVe  here  forded  the  Leddan ;  the 
water  coming  nearly  up  to  the  horses'  bellies.  Ten  min- 
utes further  was  the  very  turbid  Bureij,  which  was  easily 
forded. 

At  length,  about  a  mile  from  the  former  junction,  we  came 
upon  the  Hasbany  at  its  junction  with  the  other  united 
streams.    This  spot  is  about  five  miles  distant  from  Tell 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  406,  407. 


THE  JORD^iN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


153 


el-Kady  ;  and  one  third  of  a  mile  north  of  Tell  Sheikh  Yu- 
saf,  the  southernmost  Tell  in  the  middle  of  the  plain.  From 
the  junction  the  river  passes  down  on  the  west  side  of  that 
Tell ;  and  pursues  its  course  southward  through  the  flat, 
marshy  plain  of  the  lower  Huleh  to  the  lake.  Above  the 
junction  the  streams  were  all  running  swiftly  in  channels 
fifteen  feet  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the  plain. 

The  relative  size  of  the  three  streams  we  estimated  as  fol- 
lows :  That  from  Banias  is  twice  as  large  as  the  Hasbany ; 
while  the  Leddan,  including  its  branch,  the  Bureij,  is  twice  if 
not  three  times  the  size  of  that  from  Banias.  Below  the 
junction  the  river  is  apparently  about  as  large  as  the  Jordan 
at  the  bridge  below  the  lake. 

In  the  lower  plain,  the  stream  from  Banias  has  the  clearest 
water,  being  less  used  for  irpgation.  The  water  of  the  Led- 
dan is  of  a  turbid  ash  color.  That  of  the  Hasbany  is  muddy 
and  of  a  dark  yellow.^ 

The  swiftness  of  the  current  in  all  the  streams  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  already  given,  that  the  descent  along 
the  basin  of  the  Huleh,  from  the  base  of  Hermon  to  the  lake, 
is  hardly  less  than  six  hundred  feet ;  or  from  fifty  to  sixty 
feet  in  each  mile.^ 

Historical  Notices.  The  sacred  writers  of  the  Bible  make 
no  allusion  whatever  to  the  sources  of  the  Jordan.  Josephus 
speaks  of  the  Panium,  the  fountain  at  Banias,  as  the  main 
source  ;  and  several  times  mentions  the  stream  from  Dan 
(Tell  el-Kady)  as  the  Lesser  Jordan.^ 

But  neither  Josephus,  nor  any  other  ancient  writer,  makes 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  393,  395.  2  gee  above,  p.  75. 

^  Panium,  Joseph.  Antiq.,  15.  10.  3.  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  21.  3.  The  Lesser  Jordan, 
6  fxiKphs  'lopB.  Joseph.,  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  1. 1.  Antiq.,  1.  10. 1.  Ibid.,  5.  3.  1.  Ibid., 
8.  8.  4. 

20 


154  PHYSICAL  GEOGRxiPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

any  allusion  whatever  to  the  Hasbany,  the  longest  of  all  the 
streams.  This  silence  in  the  case  of  Josephus  might  perhaps 
be  referred  to  a  national  feeling ;  inasmuch  as  the  source  of 
this  stream  lies  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine  proper,  which 
was  reckoned  from  Dan  to  Beersheba.  But  whatever  the 
motive  may  have  been,  the  like  analogy  exists  at  the  present 
day  in  the  case  of  the  other  three  Syrian  rivers,  which  take 
their  rise  in  the  Buka'a  and  Anti-Lebanon, — the  Barada,  the 
Litany,  and  the  Orontes.  Thus  the  proper  head  of  the 
Barada  is  a  lakelet  in  the  plain  south  of  Zebedany,  in  the 
highest  part  of  Anti-Lebanon  ;  while  Abulfeda  expressly  says 
that  "  the  source  of  the  river  of  Damascus  "  is  at  the  great 
fountain  of  Fijeh,  half  way  down  the  mountain.  The  Li- 
tany has  one  of  its  heads  in  the  fine  stream  of  Ba'albek ; 
yet  the  great  fountains  near  'A^ijar  are  usually  spoken  of  as 
its  sources.  In  like  manner  the  large  fountain  at  Lebweli  is 
the  true  head  of  the  Orontes  ;  yet  what  are  known  as  the 
sources  of  that  river  are  the  abundant  fountains  near 
Hurmul. 

The  idea  which,  in  all  these  cases,  lies  at  the  foundation, 
seems  to  be,  to  regard  as  the  source  of  a  river,  not  its  re- 
remotest  head,  but  its  most  copious  fountains. ^ 

From  the  Huleh  to  the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  For  the  lake  of 
the  Huleh,  see  below,  in  Sect.  II. 

The  character  of  the  tract  of  higher  uneven  land,  which 
intervenes  between  the  two  lakes,  has  already  been  de- 
scribed.i  It  is  cut  through  by  the  deep  rocky  chasm  of  tlie 
Jordan. 

The  Jordan,  on  issuing  from  the  upper  lake,  flows  for  a 
short  distance  along  a  narrow  cultivated  plain  ;  and  then 
enters  the  volcanic  chasm,  which  leads  down  to  the  lower 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  412,  413. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


155 


lake ;  the  direct  distance  between  the  lakes  being  about 
twelve  miles.  The  upper  part  of  this  chasm  is  devoid  of 
trees ;  and  the  sides  are  strewed  with  black  boulders.  Thus 
far  the  current  of  the  river  is  swift,  but  without  rapids. 
Its  breadth  is  from  thirty  to  forty  yards.  A  mile  below  the 
lake  of  the  Huleh  there  is  a  substantial  bridge  across  the 
river.  It  has  four  pointed  arches,  is  sixty  paces  long,  and  is 
built  of  the  black  volcanic  stones  of  the  regions.  The  bridge 
is  called  Tisr  Bendt  Yalwb.  '  Bridge  of  Jacob's  daughters.' 
The  present  structure  was  erected  apparently  early  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  During  the  crusades  there  was  here  only 
a  ford.  But  this  passage  of  the  Jordan  must  always  have 
been  an  important  one ;  and  it  would  seem  probable  that  a 
bridge  must  have  existed  here  in  ancient  times.  Hence, 
perhaps,  the  adjacent  district  on  the  east  took  the  name  of 
Geshur  ('^^-a),  as  if  '  Bridge-land ' ;  at  any  rate  Geshur  and 
the  Geshurites  were  in  this  vicinity.^  At  the  present  day, 
this  is  the  great  caravan-route  between  Damascus  and  all 
western  Palestine  from  'Akka  to  Gaza. 

About  two  miles  below  the  lake  the  more  rapid  descent 
begins  ;  and  the  river  rushes  down  its  deep  and  somewhat 
winding  ravine  until  it  meets  the  level  of  the  lower  plain  at 
or  above  the  site  of  the  eastern  Bethsaida  (Julias),  two 
miles  north  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  This  ravine  is  described 
as  full  of  trees  and  shrubs ;  among  which  the  plane  tree 
(jplatamis)  and  oleander  are  conspicuous.  There  is  no  path 
within  the  chasm ;  but  the  road  along  the  west  side  leads 
over  the  heights  above ;  so  that  the  river  is  only  occasion- 
ally seen  dashing  and  foaming  along  its  rocky  bed,  with 
much  noise.  It  is  described  as  forming  a  sheet  of  foam 
throughout  most  of  the  distance  ;  but  there  appear  to  be  no 

1 1  Chron.  ii.  23;  2  Sara.  iii.  3,  xiii.  37;  Josh.  xii.  5,  xiii.  13;  Dcut.  iii.  14. 


156 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


proper  vraterfalls.  The  descent  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
lake  is  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  feet.^ 

Below  Bethsaida,  where  the  Jordan  flows  along  the  western 
part  of  the  plain  el-Batihah,  its  channel  winds  exceedingly ; 
and  the  stream  is  fordable  in  various  places.  The  river  is 
here  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  feet  broad,  sluggish  arid 
turbid,  but  not  clayey,  with  low  alluvial  banks,  which  arc 
often  changed  by  the  washing  of  the  stream.  The  Jordan 
enters  the  lake  near  the  western  hills.  We  visited  the  spot 
in  1838.  At  that  time  the  strong  southerly  winds  had  driven 
up  a  bank  of  sand  before  the  mouth,  which  rose  above  the 
water ;  and  being  connected  with  the  eastern  branch,  ex- 
tended out  for  fifteen  or  twenty  rods  southwest,  forming  a 
channel  for  the  river  for  some  distance  along  the  shore  on 
that  side. 2 

The  story  told  by  some,  that  the  Jordan  maintains  its 
course  through  the  middle  of  the  lake  without  mingling  its 
waters,  is  naturally  nothing  more  than  a  fable.^ 

For  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  see  below,  in  Sect.  II. 

Middle  Jordan.  The  Jordan  issues  from  tlie  lake  of  Ti- 
berias at  its  southwestern  extremity,  east  and  south  of  tlie 
mound  on  which  stood  the  ancient  Tarichaea.  Pococke 
describes  the  river  as  first  running  south  for  a  furlong,  and 
then  west  for  half  a  mile.  Lynch  represents  it  as  flowing 
west  immediately  from  the  lake.  West  of  the  mound  of 
Tarichaea  the  former  traveller  speaks  of  a  marsh  ;  the  latter 
mentions  an  inlet  or  bay  setting  up  north  from  the  Jordan.* 

1  See  above,  p.  77. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  414,  415  [HI.  pp.  309,  .310].  Pococke,  Description 
of  the  East,  II.  i.  pp.  72,  73.  Schubert,  Reise,  IH.  p.  259.  Lynch,  Official  Report, 
p.  43.   Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  470.   Van  de  Velde,  Mem.,  p.  148. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  414  [HI.  p.  309],  note. 

■*  Pococke,  Description  of  the  East,  IL  i.  p.  70.   Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  IG 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


157 


This  difference  might  possibly  be  accounted  for  by  the 
greater  height  of  the  water  in  the  lake,  as  seen  by  the  later 
traveller  ;  or,  not  improbably,  some  changes  may  have  here 
taken  place  during  the  century  intervening  between  the  two 
writers. 

Just  below  the  spot  where  the  river  bends  south,  are  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  bridge  of  ten  arches ;  now  called  Jisr 
es-Semakh,  after  the  village  a  mile  east  at  the  south  end  of 
the  lake.  Near  by  the  bridge  is  a  ford ;  and  there  is  an- 
other just  below  the  village  'Abeidiyeh.  The  river,  in  this 
part  and  below,  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  yards  wide, 
with  a  swift  current  and  many  rapids.  Some  of  these  latter 
are  very  strong,  and  have  a  great  descent.  There  are  also 
several  mills,  fed  by  sluices  taken  out  at  the  rapids.  The 
river  everywhere  winds  exceedingly.^ 

Such  was  the  Jordan  as  Lynch  found  it  in  April,  when  it 
was  running  "  with  full  banks,"  during  the  time  of  early 
harvest.  But  when  Molyneux  passed  down  in  the  last  days 
of  August,  the  case  was  very  different.  Duri-ng  the  first 
day's  journey,  they  scarcely  had  sufficient  water  to  swim 
the  little  boat  for  a  hundred  yards  together.  In  many  places 
the  river  was  split  into  a  number  of  small  streams,  and  con- 
sequently almost  without  water  in  any  of  them.  It  was 
also,  at  this  time,  full  of  small  weirs  or  dams,  built  up  tem- 
porarily, to  turn  the  water  into  narrow  channels  for  irriga- 
tion. In  this  upper  part  of  the  stream  there  were  hundreds 
of  places  where  the  party  might  have  walked  across  without 
wetting  their  feet,  on  the  large  rocks  and  stones.^ 

and  Map.  Comp.  Molyneux,  Journal  of  Royal  Geograph.  Soc,  XVIII.  p.  107. 
Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  pp.  90,  91.   Sectzen,  Reisen,  I.  pp.  350,  351. 

1  For  the  many  rapids,  see  Lynch,  Official  Report,  pp.  IG,  17,  et  passim.  Lynch, 
Narrative,  p.  173  sq.  See  Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  90, 91.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  351. 

2  Molyneux,  Journal  of  Royal  Geograph.  Soc,  XVIII.  pp.  108,  100,  115. 


158 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


Five  miles  below  the  lake,  the  YixQvYarmuk  or  Hieromax, 
now  called  the  Sheri'at  el-Mandhur,  comes  in  from  the  east ; 
being  here  nearly  as  large  as  the  Jordan  itself.  About  a  mile 
further  down  is  another  bridge  built  of  volcanic  rocks,  of 
Saracenic  construction,  and  still  in  use.  The  architecture  is 
very  massive :  with  one  large  pointed  arch  and  two  smaller 
ones  below,  and  three  small  arches  above  each  of  the  latter. 
It  is  called  Jisr  el-Mejami'a,  from  the  neighboring  meeting  ot 
the  waters.  The  river  at  this  point  is  not  so  wide  as  at  the 
bridge  below  the  Huleh.  Here  passes  the  caravan-route, 
leading  from  Beisan  to  Damascus,  through  the  country  east 
of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.^ 

The  river  continues  of  the  same  general  character,  though 
with  more  water  and  fewer  rapids,  as  far  as  Sakut  and  "Wady 
Malih,  where  the  long  fertile  reach  of  the  upper  Ghur  termi- 
nates. As  seen  from  a  high  point  southeast  from  Pella,  this 
upper  portion  of  the  GhDr  presents  a  beautiful  prospect  ; 
much  of  it  apparently  cultivated  and  yielding  rich  crops  ; 
and  the  whole  enlivened  by  the  very  many  windings  of  the 
Jordan,  as  it  meanders  from  side  to  side  through  the  broad 
valley.  Opposite  to  Beisan  is  a  ford,  or  rather  three  ford- 
ing places,  near  each  other,  the  southernmost  of  which  we 
crossed  in  May,  1852.  The  river  at  this  ford  spreads  out 
wider  than  usual,  being  about  forty-live  yards  ;  the  water 
came  up  to  the  middle  of  the  horses'  sides.  The  same- 
morning  we  had  crossed  at  another  ford,  not  far  north  of 
Sakut ;  here  the  stream  was  divided  by  a  long  and  narrow 
island  covered  with  trees  and  the  rankest  vegetation  ;  and 
the  water  was  somewhat  less  deep.  At  this  point  the  lower 
valley  of  the  river  was  wider  than  usual,  forming  a  little 

1  Molyneux,  Journal  of  Royal  Geograph.  Soc,  XVIH.  p.  112.  Lynch,  Official 
Report,  p.  20.   Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  351. 


THE  JOEDAX  AXD  ITS  SOURCES. 


alluvial  plain  on  the  west  of  the  stream.  But  in  this  plain 
were  two  former  channels  of  the  river,  now  full  of  tamarisk 
trees.  In  the  rainy  season  the  river  still  sends  its  waters 
partly  through  these  old  channels  ;  hut  never  overflows  the 
little  plain.i 

Below  Wady  Malih,  the-  Ghur,  as  we  have  seen,  is  for  a 
time  contracted ;  and  the  Jordan  passes  down  near  the 
eastern  mountain  to  the  lower  plain  of  the  Kurawa.  Here, 
over  against  the  mouth  of  Wady  Fari'a,  is  another  ford  ; 
and  just  above  it  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  Roman 
bridge,  Jisr  Dumieh,  not  over  the  present  course  of  the  river, 
but  spanning  an  earlier,  more  eastern  channel,  now  dry. 
Several  of  the  Roman  arches  remain.  Here  of  course  was 
once  a  great  route  leading  over  from  Nabulus  (and  perhaps 
Jericho)  to  Gilead  and  Bashan  ;  as  at  the  present  day  there 
is  a  road  by  the  ford  from  Nabulus  to  es-Salt  and  Jebel 
'Ajlun.2 

Tliis  middle  portion  of  the  Jordan  terminates  over  against 
the  low  rocky  ridge  which  extends  out  from  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  Kurn  Surtabeli,  and  contracts  the  whole  valley 
to  its  narrowest  limits.^ 

Lower  Jordan.  To  one  looking  up  the  Ghor  from  a  point 
below  Kurn  Surtabeh,  or  as  seen  from  the  brow  of  the  west- 
ern mountains,  the  valley  opposite  the  Kurn  appears  higher 
than  further  south  ;  as  if  a  low  swell  extended  across  it  from 
the  ridge  at  the  end  of  Surtabeh  to  the  base  of  the  eastern 
mountains.  Where  the  Jordan  finds  its  way  through  this 
apparently  higher  tract,  this  latter  is  broken  up,  on  both 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  316,  325,  334. 

2  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  28.  Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  249.  Van  de  Velde, 
Mem.,  p.  124. 

8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  293. 


160 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


sides  of  the  stream,  into  labyrintlis  of  deep  ravines  with  bar- 
ren chalky  sides,  forming  cones  and  hills  of  various  shapes, 
and  presenting  a  most  wild  and  desolate  scene.  Here  would 
seem  to  be  the  great  break-doivn  in  the  bed  of  the  Jordan 
mentioned  in  this  region  by  Lynch.^ 

The  character  of  the  Jordan  continues  much  the  same  as 
higher  up.  The  stream  winds  greatly  along  its  inner  valley, 
fringed  usually  by  a  border  of  trees  and  verdure.  The  cur- 
rent is  swift,  deep,  and  strong,  with  fewer  broken  rapids. 
But  the  GhOr  itself  has  now  become  an  arid  desert,  except 
where  a  few  fountains  on  its  borders  impart  verdure  to  nar- 
row tracts  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  There  are  three  or 
four  fords  in  the  river  below  Kurn  Surtabeli ;  but  at  some 
seasons,  when  the  river  is  full,  the  Arabs  are  compelled  to 
swim  their  horses.  One  of  the  main  fords  is  at  the  mouth  of 
Wady  Sha'ib  or  Nimrin,  E.  N.  E.  from  Jericho;  here  more 
commonly  the  horses  swim  across.  The  ford  cl-Helu,  lower 
down,  which  we  visited  in  1838,  is  never  passed  without 
swimming.  The  stream  was  here  about  forty  yards  in 
breadth ;  the  guides  supposed  it  to  be  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep. 
The  current,  though  still,  was  very  swift  and  strong ;  so 
that  the  stoutest  swimmers  were  carried  down  many  yards 
in  crossing.  The  water  was  of  a  clayey  color,  but  sweet  and 
pleasant  to  the  taste.^ 

Between  these  two  fords,  near  the  ruined  convent  of  St. 
John,  is  the  spot  where  the  Latin  pilgrims  bathe  in  the  Jor- 
dan. Tlie  bathing-place  of  the  Greek  pilgrims,  the  el-Mesh- 
ra'a  of  Lynch,  is  at  some  distance  further  down.    Each  party 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  293.  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  29.  Comp. 
Anderson's  Geological  Report,  ibid.,  p.  148. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  L  pp.  535,  536  [H.  pp.  255-257]. 


THE  JOKDAN  AXD  ITS  SOURCES. 


IGl 


claims  to  bathe  at  the  very  spot  where  our  Lord  was  baptized 
by  John. 

The  course  of  the  lower  Jordan  is  in  general  along  tlic 
eastern  portion  of  the  GhOr.  It  enters  the  Dead  Sea  about 
tliree  miles  below  the  ford  el-Helu.  It  has  there  sluggishly 
expanded  to  the  breadth  of  eighty  yards ;  with  a  depth  of 
only  three  fect.^ 

General  Features.  —  Valley  and  Channel.  \\q  have  al- 
ready referred  to  the  inner  and  lower  valley  of  its  own,  within 
which  the  Jordan  flows  along  the  Ghur.  Scientifically  the 
two  valleys  are  spoken  of  as  two  terraces  ;  the  upper,  being 
the*tevel  of  the  Glijr,  extending  back  to  the  mountains  on 
each  side ;  the  lower  being  the  level  of  the  deeper  valley  in 
which  the  river  flows. ^  The  slope  or  offset  between  the  two 
terraces,  which  is  sometimes  precipitous,  and  sometimes 
composed  of  clayey  pyramids  or  rounded  sand-hills,  is  often 
referred  to  as  the  upper  or  outer  banks  of  the  river,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  banks  of  the  channel  itself. 

We  have  also  alluded  several  times  to  the  narrow  line  of 
trees  and  herbage  which  in  most  parts  borders  the  stream 
along  each  bank.  The  breadth  of  this  line  of  verdure  seems 
to  be  regulated  by  the  extent  to  which  the  stream  overflows, 
or  the  water  penetrates  the  soil.  In  some  parts  the  ground 
along  the  bank  of  the  channel  occupied  by  this  border  of 
vegetation,  is  two  or  three  feet  more  depressed  than  the  level 
of  the  lower  terrace  ;  and  in  such  places  the  water  often  rises 
over  it.^ 

The  elevation  of  the  outer  banks,  or  upper  plain  above  the 
lower,  varies  g]'eatly ;  in  some  places  being  not  more  than 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  31. 

2  Anderson's  Geological  Report,  p.  140.   See  above,  p.  145. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  L  pp.  535,  53G  [L  pp.  255,  256]. 

21 


1G2 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRArHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


forty  feet,  while  in  other  parts  it  is  not  less  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet,  or  even  more.  This  refers  of  course  to  the 
brow  of  the  upper  terrace.  In  like  manner  the  breadth  of  the 
lower  or  inner  valley  is  irregular  ;  it  may  be  said  in  general 
to  vary  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  perhaps  less  in  some 
parts,  to  half  a  mile  in  others. 

Along  this  lower  inner  valley,  the  stream  pursues  its  way 
in  mazy  windings.  But  these  belong  only  to  the  river  and 
not  to  its  inner  valley.  The  latter,  as  seen  from  the  adja- 
cent mountains,  although  it  deviates  much  from  a  direct 
course,  has  nothing  of  a  serpentine  character.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  alluvial  soil  and  many  short  turns,  the  stream 
not  unfrequently  changes  its  course,  cutting  for  itself  a  new 
channel,  and  forsaking  the  old  one.  In  the  same  way  islands 
are  formed  ;  of  which  there  is  a  large  number  in  the  river. 

Scripture  speaks  of  the  thicket  of  trees  and  verdure  along 
the  river,  as  the  excellency  or  pride  of  Jordan.  Allusion  is 
also  made  to  it  as  the  haunt  of  lions  and  other  wild  beasts, 
by  which  the  country  was  of  old  infested. ^ 

Descent  and  Depression.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
descent  of  the  Jordan  in  the  basin  of  the  Huleh  to  the  lake 
is  about  six  hundred  feet ;  and  from  thence  to  the  lake  of 
Tiberias  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Below  the 
latter  lake  the  whole  course  of  the  Jordan  and  Ghor  is 
depressed  several  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  distance  between  the  lake  and  the  Dead  Sea 
is  fifty-six  and  one  half  geographical  miles,  or  about  sixty-five 
English  miles  ;  and  the  difference  in  the  depression  of  the 
two  lakes  is  taken  at  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  feet.  This, 
of  course,  marks  the  descent  of  the  Jordan  between  the  two  ; 

1  Zech.  xi.  3.  English  Version,  wrongly,  *  swelling  of  Jordan,'  Jcr.  xii.  5,  xlix. 
19,  L  44. 


THE  JORDAN  AXD  ITS  SOURCES.  1G3 


amounting  to  nearest  10.2  feet,  in  each  English  mile  of  its 
direct  course.^ 

We  thus  have  for  the  whole  descent  of  the  Jordan,  from 
the  base  of  Hermon  to  the  Dead  Sea,  as  the  result  of  obser- 
vations with  the  barometer,  the  figures  6004-750  + G33, 
amounting  in  all,  to  2016  feet.  Of  this  great  descent,  more 
than  two  thirds  lies  above  the  lake  of  Tiberias. 

Overfloiv  of  Jordan.  In  the  English  Version  it  is  said 
that  Jordan,  in  the  first  month,  "  overfloweth  all  his  banks 
all  the  time  of  harvest."  ^  The  first  month  was  Nisan, 
beginning  with  the  new  moon  of  March  or  April ;  and  the 
time  of  harvest  in  the  Ghor  was  and  is  during  April  and 
May  ;  the  barley  preceding  the  wheat  harvest  by  two  or 
three  weeks. 

From  this  language  the  reader  is  naturally  led  to  con- 
clude that  the  Jordan,  like  the  Nile,  overflows  its  banks  at  a 
certain  season,  covering  with  its  waters  all  the  lower  valley, 
and  perhaps  portions  of  the  higher  plain.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  fact ;  as  appears  from  the  preceding  pages.  Nor 
indeed  is  such  the  meaning  of  Scripture.  The  Hebrew 
simply  declares  that  during  the  time  of  harvest  Jordan  is 
"  full  [or  filled]  up  to  all  his  banks  "  ;  that  is,  the  river 
runs  with  full  banks,  or  brimful.  This  is  precisely  what  is 
seen  at  the  present  day.  There  are  in  some  places  depressed 
spots  along  the  banks,  into  which  the  waters  rise,  and  thus 
overflow  ;  but  these  are  exceptions. 

During  the  rainy  season  and  the  time  of  the  melting  of  the 
snows  upon  Hermon,  there  must  of  course  be  vast  quantities 
of  water,  from  that  mountain  and  the  surrounding  regions, 
which  would  naturally  find  their  way  to  the  Jordan  and 

1  See  above,  p,  80. 

2  Josh.  iii.  15;  1  Chron.  xii.  15;  Sirac  xxiv.  36. 


164 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


its  lakes.  Still  we  have  no  accouut  of  any  sudden  or  violent 
rise  or  inundation  of  the  river ;  and  there  are  natural  cir- 
cumstances to  show  that  nothing  of  the  kind  would  ever  be 
likely  to  occur. 

In  the  first  place,  the  heavy  rains  of  November  and 
December  find  the  earth  in  a  parched  and  thirsty  state  ;  and 
among  the  limestone  rocks  and  caverns  of  Palestine  a  far 
greater  proportion  of  the  water  which  falls  is  absorbed, than 
is  usual  in  countries  where  rains  are  frequent.  Of  the 
brooks  which  in  winter  flow  down  the  side  valleys,  many 
even  then  do  not  reach  the  Jordan ;  their  waters  being  swal- 
lowed up  by  the  thirsty  ground. 

Again,  the  waters  which  actually  descend  from  Hermon, 
and  the  hills  around  the  upper  Jordan,  are  received  into  the 
basins  of  the  Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  are  there 
spread  out  over  a  broad  surface  ;  so  that  all  overflow  and 
violence  is  prevented.  The  stream  that  issues  from  the  lower 
lake,  can  only  flow  with  a  regulated  current,  varying  in  depth 
according  to  the  height  of  water  in  that  lake.  Indeed,  these 
lakes  may  be  compared  to  great  regulators,  which  control 
the  flow  of  the  Jordan,  and  prevent  its. violence  and  inun- 
dation. As  now  the  lake  of  Tiberias  reaches  its  highest 
level  at  the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  the  Jordan  naturally 
flows  with  its  fullest  current,  and  "  with  full  banks,"  for 
some  time  after  that  period.  As  also  the  rise  of  the  lake 
naturally  varies  (like  that  of  the  Dead  Sea)  in  different 
years,  so  likewise  the  fulness  of  the  Jordan. ^ 

Loneliness  of  Jordan.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  there 
has  never  been  a  city,  town,  or  village  of  any  note  situated 
on  the  immediate  banks  of  the  Jordan,  below  the  lake  of 
Tiberias.    This  is  true  also  of  the  upper  Jordan,  in  respect 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  540-542  [IL  pp.  2G1-264]. 


THE  JORDAN  AXD  ITS  SOURCES. 


1G5 


to  its  various  channels  ;  excepting,  of  course,  the  towns 
around  their  fountains.  There  may  have  been,  and  are  still, 
villages  near  the  upper  lake  ;  and  the  shores  of  the  lake  of 
Tiberias  were  and  are  skirted  with  several  towns.  Among 
these  latter  is  to  be  reckoned  the  northern  Bethsaida  (Ju- 
lias), which  lay  upon  a  Tell  overlooking  also  the  entrance 
of  the  Jordan  into  the  lake. 

But  below  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  all  the  cities  of  the  GhOr, 
as  Bethsliean,  Phasaelis,  Jericho,  and  those  on  the  east,  are 
situated, not  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Jordan,  nor  near  it,  but  on 
the  higher  ground  along  the  base  of  the  mountains  on  each 
side.  The  only  exception  perhaps  was  Succoth  (now  Sa- 
kut),  which  stood  upon  a  projecting  bluff  of  the  upper  ter- 
race, overlooking  the  lower  valley.  At  the  present  day  there 
are  three  miserable  villages  near  the  stream,  between  the  lake 
and  the  entrance  of  the  Hieromax  ;  and  that  is  all.  From 
that  point  to  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Jordan  is  utterly  lonely. 

In  like  manner,  it  does  not  appear  that  a  boat  ever  floated 
on  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  until  the  present  century.  Nav- 
igation of  course  was  impossible  from  the  strong  current  and 
violent  rapids.  But  even  for  the  passage  of  the  river,  boats 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  in  use  ;  the  stream  was  everywhere 
forded.  The  English  Version  once  mentions  a  '  ferry-boat ; ' 
but  this  was  evidently  nothing  more  than  a  raft  to  carry 
over  the  king's  household  ;  "  and  was  not  used  by  the  king 
himself,  nor  by  his  attendants. ^ 

Nor  does  it  appear  that  this  river  has  ever  been  fre- 
quented as  a  place  of  fishing.  Molyneux  remarks,  that "  the 
muddy  Jordan  is,  throughout,  full  of  small  fish  ;  "  but  they 
are  apparently  too  small  to  be  worth  taking  for  food.^  The 

1  2  Sam.  xix.  18  [19]. 

2  Journal  of  Royal  Geograph.  Soc,  XYIII.  p.  115. 


166 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


lake  of  Tiberias  is  celebrated  in  the  New  Testament  and  at 
the  present  day  for  its  numerous  and  fine  fish  of  various 
kinds ;  but  none  of  these  apparently  pass  out  of  the  lake  and 
down  the  rapids  of  the  Jordan. 

Jordan  as  a  Boundary^  etc.  The  Jordan,  winding  through 
its  great  depressed  plain,  formed  naturally  not  only  the  di- 
viding line  between  Palestine  on  the  west  and  the  country 
on  the  east ;  but  presented  also  serious  difficulties  to  those 
who  would  pass  from  one  hill-country  to  the  other.  The 
traveller,  for  example,  who  would  journey  from  Jerusalem 
to  Heslibon,  had  first  to  descend  nearly  four  thousand  feet, 
then  cross  a  rapid  river,  througli  which  his  animals  must 
swim ;  and  again  ascend  to  an  equal  elevation.  However 
difficult  the  descent  and  ascent,  the  main  point  always 
spoken  of  in  Scripture,  is  the  passage  of  the  Jordan. 

The  earliest  mention  of  Jordan  in  Scripture  has  reference 
only  to  the  fertility  of  its  plain  or  circuit  (">23),  before  the 
destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  For  this  reason  it 
was  chosen  by  Lot  on  his  separation  from  Abraham.  The 
plain  thus  chosen  was  situated  in,  or  at  least  included,  the 
tract  then  on  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  now  covered 
by  the  shallow  southern  bay  of  that  sea ;  for  it  is  expressly 
said  to  lie  "  as  thou  comest  unto  Zoar."  ^ 

The  river  being  the  dividing  line,  the  phrase  '  beyond 
Jordan '  is  more  commonly  used  to  denote  the  country  on 
the  east,  as  distinguished  from  the  '  land  of  Canaan'  in  the 
west.2  This  is  the  prevailing  usage  ;  inasmuch  as  the  sacred 
writers  lived,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  west.^    Yet  in  several 

1  Gen.  xiii.'lO,  IL    See  above,  p.  80. 

2  Num.  XXXV.  14.  In  this  passage,  and  some  others,  the  English  Version 
wrongly  has  *  on  this  side,'  instead  of '  beyond.' 

3  Gen.  1.  10,  11;  Josh.  ix.  10,  xiv.  3,  xvii.  5;  Judg.  v.  17,  and  often;  Matth.  iv. 
25;  Mark  iii.  8;  John  i.  28,  x.  40,  al. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


1G7 


instances,  where  the  writer  or  speaker  was  on  the  east  of  the 
river,  the  phrase  '  beyond  Jordan  '  marks  western  Palestine ; 
the  word  '  west '  or  '  westward  '  being  sometimes  appended.^ 
The  earliest  recorded  passage  of  the  Jordan  is  that  of 
Jacob  :  With  my  staff  I  passed  over  this  Jordan  ;  and  now 
I  am  become  two  bands  ;  "  but  when  or  where  he  again 
forded  the  river,  with  his  two  bands,  to  reach  Shalem  and 
Shechem,  is  not  said.^  The  next  was  the  miraculous  pas- 
sage of  the  Hebrew  host  under  Joshua,  over  against  Jeri- 
cho, when  "  Jordan  was  driven  back,"  after  their  long  en- 
campment in  the  wastes  of  Moab  in  the  Ghor.^  It  was  at 
the  fords  of  Jordan  that  Jephthah  slew^  the  Ephraimites,  who 
could  not  pronounce  the  Shibboleth^  David  with  his  army 
passed  over  Jordan,  probably  in  the  north,  to  march  against 
the  Syrians  to  Helam.^  Later  also,  fleeing  before  Absalom, 
David  crossed  the  river,  apparently  from  Jericho,  on  his  way 
to  Mahanaim  ;  and  again  returned,  when  Judah  came  down 
to  Gilgal  to  meet  him.  At  this  time  a  raft  was  used  to  carry 
over  the  king's  household.^  In  the  same  quarter,  too,  Elijah 
and  Elisha  smote  the  waters  with  the  mantle  of  the  former, 
so  that  the  flood  parted,  and  they  went  over  on  dry  ground.*" 
Naaman,  returning  from  Samaria  to  Damascus,  bathed  in 
the  Jordan  at  one  of  the  upper  fords ;  and  the  Syrians, 
fleeing  panic-stricken  from  the  same  city,  must  have  passed 
the  river  in  the  same  vicinity.^  Judas  Maccabaeus  and  his 
hosts  returning  from  Gilead,  crossed  to  Bethshean  ;  but  it 
was  apparently  opposite  Jericho  that  Jonathan  and  his  fol- 

1  Deut.  iii.  20, 25,  xi.  30;  Josh.  v.  1,  xii.  7,  etc. 

2  Gen.  xxxii.  10,  xxxiii.  18.  3  Josh.  iii.  1-17;  Ps.  cxiv.  3. 
4  Judg.  xii.  5,  6.                              5  2  Sam.  x.  17. 

6  2  Sam.  xvii.  22;  comp.  16.  2  Sam.  xix.  15,  18  [19].   See  above,  p.  165. 

2  Kings  ii.  8,  14;  comp.  4. 
8  2  Kings  V.  14;  comp.  3.   2  Kings  vii.  15. 


168 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


lowers  swam  through  the  river,  to  place  themselves  in  safety 
from  Bacchides.i 

John  the  Baptist,  whose  early  life  had  been  passed  in  the 
desert  of  Judali,  on  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  came  first 
baptizing  in  Jordan  ;  and  there  "  went  out  to  him  Jeru- 
salem and  all  Judea  and  all  the  region  round  about  Jordan." 
Here  J esus  also  came  to  be  baptized  of  John  ;  and  then  went 
up  into  the  adjacent  desert  to  be  tempted.^  These  circum- 
stances, the  neighboring  desert,  and  the  mention  of  crowds 
only  from  Jerusalem  and  Judea,  serve  to  show  that  the 
place  of  baptism  was  probably  at  one  of  the  lower  fords,  near 
Jericho.  According  to  the  common  (and  perhaps  best)  read- 
ing, John's  headquarters  were  at  Bethabara  (house  of  the 
ford)  beyond  Jordan.  The  place  had  its  name  doubtless 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  ford ;  and  is  not  improbably  the 
same  with  the  Beth-barah  of  the  Old  Testament.^ 

Twice  afterwards  our  Lord  passed  over  into  the  country 
east  of  Jordan.  Once,  to  escape  the  plots  of  the  Jews,  he 
withdrew  to  the  place  where  John  at  first  baptized  ;  whence 
he  was  recalled  by  the  death  of  Lazarus.^  Retiring  for  a 
time  to  Ephraim  on  the  border  of  the  desert,  he  seems  from 
thence  to  have  crossed  the  Jordan,  and  having  passed  down 
through  Perea,  he  recrossed  the  river  near  Jericho,  and  so 
made  his  way  to  Jerusalem.^ 

Explorations  of  the  Jordan.    It  has  been  said  above,  that, 

1 1  Mace.  V.  52.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  12.  8.  5.  1  Mace.  ix.  48.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  13. 
1.  3. 

2  Luke  i.  80,  iii.  21;  Matth.  iii.  5,  6;  Mark  i.  5;  Matth.  iii.  13-lG,  iv.  1;  Luke 
iv.  1. 

3  John  i.  28,  x.  40;  Judg.  vii.  24. 
*  John  X.  39,  40,  xi.  3,  IG,  17. 

«  John  xi.  54;  Mark  x.  1,  46;  Luke  xix.  1,  28.  See  also  the  author's  Harmony 
of  the  Gospels  in  Greek,  pp.  200-204. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  ITS  SOURCES. 


1G9 


SO  far  as  is  known,  no  boat  appears  to  have  ever  floated  on 
the  Jordan  until  the  present  century. ^  But,  as  if  to  mark 
the  modern  spirit  of  progress,  during  the  second  quarter  of 
this  century  boats  passed  down  the  Jordan  no  less  than  three 
times,  from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to  the  Dead  Sea. 

I.  Costigan.  In  July,  1835,  Mr.  Costigan,  an  Irish  trav- 
eller, contrived  to  have  a  small  boat  carried  over,  on  camels, 
from  the  coast  to  the  lake  of  Tiberias ;  and  thence  followed 
the  Jordan  with  it  down  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Here  he 
launched  forth  alone  with  his  Maltese  servant  upon  these 
waters ;  and  succeeded  in  reaching  the  southern  extremity. 
By  some  mismanagement  they  were  left  for  two  or  three 
days  without  fresh  water,  exposed  to  the  fierce  rays  of  the 
burning  sun ;  and  were  compelled  to  row  hard  to  get  back 
to  the  northern  end.  On  reaching  the  shore  they  lay  for  a 
whole  day  too  weak  to  move,  and  trying  to  regain  strength 
by  laving  each  other  with  the  heavy  waters  of  the  lake.  At 
length  the  servant  made  shift  to  crawl  to  Jericho,  whither 
Costigan  was  also  brought,  and  was,  as  soon  as  possible, 
conveyed  to  Jerusalem,  under  the  excitement  of  high  inter- 
mittent fever.  He  died,  two  days  afterwards,  in  the  Latin 
convent ;  and  lies  buried  in  its  cemetery.  No  notes,  nor 
any  account  of  his  voyage,  were  found  among  his  papers. 
The  enterprise  was  wholly  without  fruit  in  respect  to  both 
the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.^ 

II.  Molyneux.  In  the  latter  part  of  August,  1847,  Lieut. 
Molyneux,  of  the  British  ship  of  war  Spartan,  succeeded  in 
transporting  the  smallest  boat  of  the  ship,  on  camels,  from 
'Akka  to  Tiberias.  Accompanied  by  three  English  sailors 
and  several  Arab  servants,  he  proceeded  down  the  Jordan 

1  See  above,  p.  165. 

2  See  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  229,  230  [I.  p.  339]. 

22 


170 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


with  the  boat ;  having  also  a  land  party  with  the  baggage  on 
camels  and  mules.  The  water  was  low,  and  the  passage  of 
the  boat,  for  the  first  days,  difficult.  On  the  sixth  day,  not 
far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Zerka,  while  Lieut.  M.  was  with 
the  land  party,  the  boat  was  attacked  and  plundered  by  a 
large  body  of  Arabs,  and  the  three  English  sailors  put  on 
shore,  to  find  their  way  back  to  Tiberias ;  which  they  did. 
Two  Arab  servants  were  permitted  to  go  on  with  the  boat ; 
which  they  brought  safely  to  the  ford  opposite  Jericho. 
Lieut.  M.  embarked  on  the  Dead  Sea,  with  only  Arab  assist- 
ants ;  proceeded  as  far  south  as  to  the  neighborhood  of  the 
peninsula  ;  took  three  deep  soundings  (225,  178,  183  fath- 
oms) ;  and  returned.  He  left  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan 
Aug.  24  ;  and  reached  the  northern  shore  of  the  sea,  on 
his  return,  Sept.  5.  He  was  able  to  take  back  the  boat  on 
camels,  by  way  of  Jerusalem,  to  the  ship,  then  at  Yafa. 
But  the  anxiety  and  excessive  fatigue  to  which  he  had  been 
exposed  in  the  "  misty  oven  "  (as  he  calls  it)  of  the  Ghur 
and  Dead  Sea,  had  worn  him  out ;  and  he  died  soon  after 
his  return  to  his  ship,  from  the  combined  effects  of  climate 
and  over-exertion. 

A  brief  journal  of  the  voyage,  drawn  up  by  Lieut.  M.  him- 
self, was  published,  in  1848,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Hoyal 
Geographical  Society.^ 

HI.  Lynch.  On  the  10th  of  April,  1848,  a  well-appointed 
expedition  from  the  United  States,  under  the  authority  of 
the  government,  embarked  in  two  metallic  boats  upon  the 
lake  of  Tiberias,  and  entered  the  Jordan  ;  having  also  a  land 
party  on  camels  and  horses.  This  expedition  consisted  of 
Lieut.  Lynch  as  commander,  Lieut.  Dale  as  second  in  com- 
mand. Midshipman  Aulick,  a  botanist,  and  ten  chosen  sea- 

1  VoL  XVIH.  pp.  104-130;  comp.  ibid.,  p.  xxxvi. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUT.UilES  FROM  THE  EAST.  171 


men.  They  were  accompanied  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Anderson  as 
geologist,  and  Mr.  Bedlow,  a  traveller.  Tlie  season  of  the 
year  was  favorable  ;  the  Jordan  then  usually  having  the 
most  water.  They  experienced  great  difficulties  in  the  de- 
scent of  the  river,  from  rocks  and  strong  rapids.  They 
reached  the  Dead  Sea  in  eight  and  a  half  days,  on  the  1 8th 
of  April.  Their  examination  of  that  sea  will  be  noticed 
further  on,  in  connection  with  our  account  of  those  waters. 
A  level  was  afterwards  run  from  the  Dead  Sea  by  Jerusalem 
to  the  Mediterranean  at  Yafa,  according  to  the  suggestions 
of  the  author  of  this  work.  The  party  proceeded  by  way  of 
Tiberias,  Mount  Hermon,  and  Damascus,  to  Beirut.  Several 
were  already  ill  from  exhaustion  and  exposure  ;  but  all  re- 
covered exc3pt  Lieut.  Dale,  who  died  of  fever  in  the  house 
of  Itcv.  Eli  Smith  at  Bhamdun.  His  grave  is  in  the  Ameri- 
can cemetery  at  Beirut. 

Two  works  embracing  the  journals  and  results  of  this 
expedition  have  been  published  by  Lieut.  Lynch.  The  first 
appeared  late  in  1849,  entitled  Narrative  of  the  United 
States  Expedition  to  the  River  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  second  was  not  published  until  1852,  with  the  title, 
Official  Report  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to  explore  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  River  Jordan.  This  latter  volume  con- 
tains the  scientific  reports  ;  including  the  very  important 
geological  report  of  Dr.  H.  J.  Anderson. 

II.    THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 

From  the  east,  the  Jordan  receives  its  largest  and  most 
important  tributaries. 

Wadij  Za'ureh.  The  fine  brook  which  flows  down  this 
valley  to  Banias  is  understood  not  to  be  perennial  ;  and  has 
already  been  sufficiently  described. ^ 

1  See  above,  p.  81. 


172  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Before  turning  to  the  next  stream,  the  Hieromax,  it  may 
be  remarked,  that  some  of  the  head  branches  of  the  A'waj 
(^Pharpar^,  which  flows  towards  Damascus,  lie  within  the 
northern  border  of  Palestine  proper.  On  the  great  road 
leading  northeast  from  the  bridge  over  the  Jordan  to  Da- 
mascus by  el-Kuneitirah  and  Sa'sa',  the  country  between 
these  two  places  slopes  towards  the  east  and  north.  At  an 
hour  or  more  from  el-Kuneitirah,  the  way  crosses  a  Wady 
with  a  stream,  having  two  bridges  on  the  ancient  road,  still 
passable,  over  the  two  branches  or  channels  of  the  rivulet. 
An  hour  before  Sa'sa',  the  stream  Mughanniyeli  in  like 
manner  crosses  the  road ;  and  also  has  a  bridge.  On  ear- 
lier maps,  all  these  streams  are  made  to  run  south  to  the 
Hieromax.  The  latest  map,  however,  represents  them  as 
flowing  together  on  the  right  of  the  road,  and  forming  one 
stream,  which,  coming  from  the  south,  joins  the  otlier 
branches  of  the  A'waj  at  Sa'sa'.  This  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  slope  of  the  land,  and  the  testimony  of  travellers.^ 

Tlie  Yarmuk  or  Hieromax.  No  perennial  stream  flows  to 
the  upper  Jordan  or  the  lake  of  Tiberias  from  the  east.  The 
first  and  largest  tributary  on  that  side,  the  Hieromax,  enters 
the  Jordan  about  five  miles  below  the  lake. 

There  is  no  allusion  to  this  river  in  Scripture  or  in  Jose- 
phus ;  but  its  Hebrew  name,  Jarmuk  {Ty^^^^)-,  occurs  several 
times  in  the  Talmudists.^  From  this  name  the  Greek  form 
(^'lepo/jLa^^  is  an  obvious  corruption,  having  the  correspond- 
ing consonants.    It  is  not  found,  however,  in  Greek  writers  ; 

i 

1  Wetzstein's  Map,  by  Kiepert,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  Erdk.,  Auj?.  18-59.  W.  ]\[.  Thom- 
son, in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1849,  p.  3G7.  Comp.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  313.  Por- 
ter's Handbook,  p.  46-5.  Van  de  Velde's  Map  merely  copies  that  of  Berghaus, 
in  1835. 

2  Lightfoot,  Opera,  fol.  H.  pp.  172,  173. 


THE  JOUDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 


173 


and  tlio  Latin  Hicromax  appears  to  be  only  once  read  in 
Plinj.^  Arab  writers  have  tlic  name  Yarinuk  ;  but  the  com- 
mon appellation  is  now  the  Sheri'at  el-Mandhur,  from  a 
tribe  of  Arabs  who  pitch  their  tents  along  its  lower  course  ; 
and  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Sheri'at  cl-Kebir  or 
Jordan. 

The  remote  sources  of  the  Yarmuk  are  the  Wadys,  or 
winter-torrents,  wliich  descend  from  the  western  slopes  of 
Jobol  Hauran.  Those  Wadys  are  numerous,  and  many  of 
tliem  run  together  in  the  great  plain  ;  but  their  course  and 
number  have  been  as  yet  very  imperfectly  explored.  Among 
these  doubtless  is  the  brook  by  Raphon.^  Still  some  of  the 
more  important  ones  have  been  pointed  out ;  all  running 
with  deep  channels  througli  the  wide  plain. 

The  northernmost  is  Wady  Kunawat.  It  has  its  begin- 
ning near  the  city  of  that  name,  and  sweeps  along  northwest 
on  the  border  of  the  Lcjah,  and  south  of  Nejran,  to  Edhra', 
the  ancient  Edrei.  There  turning  southwest  to  Eshmiskin, 
it  receives  Wady  Hiireir,  coming  from  the  swampy  ground 
near  Tell  Dilly  on  the  Haj  route,  between  es-Suname'n  and 
Eshmiskm.  In  winter  and  spring  the  district  arouu'l  Tell 
Dilly  is  a  deep  bog  or  swamp  ;  the  proper  source  of  tlie 
stream  is  two  hours  west,  at  Tell  Serraya.^  The  Wady 
Kunawat  continues  the  same  course  to  el-Meziirib.  An- 
other valley,  Wady  el-Gliar,  also  begins  near  Kunawat,  and 
runs  west  directly  through  the  plain  to  Wady  Kunawat, 
between  Eshmiskin  and  Mezarib.  The  Wady  ed-Dau  ,is 
made  up  of  two  branches ;  one  coming  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Suweideh,  and  the  other  from  beyond  'Ary.  The 

1  "  Gadara,  Hieromace  praefluente/'  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.,  V.  16.  v.  18, 

2  1  Mace.  V.  37,  39,  40,  42.   See  above,  p.  86. 
s  Burckhardt,  p.  656. 


174 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


united  Wady  goes  to  the  Kunawat,  near  Mezarib ;  and  then 
the  valley  below  the  junction  takes  the  name  of  Wady  'Awei- 
rid.  The  southernmost  branch,  Wady  Zeidy,  begins  in  the 
mountains  east  and  north  of  Kureiyeh,  and  passes  down  on 
the  north  of  Busrah  (^Bozrali)  ;  while  another  valley,  Wady 
el-'Akib,  has  its  rise  near  Sulkhad,  and,  sweeping  round  far 
to  the  south  of  Busrah,  joins  the  Zeidy  further  west.  The 
latter  then  runs  with  a  winding  course  by  Der'a,  and  unites 
with  Wady  Aweirid.  The  joint  stream  now  flows  westward, 
and  becomes  the  Yarmuk.^ 

Several  lesser  streams  or  Wadys  are  named  as  running  to 
the  Yarmuk,  from  the  north,  cliiefly  from  Jaulan.  Wady 
'Allan,  a  permanent  stream,  unites  near  Tesil  with  the  Ru- 
kad,  not  permanent,  coming  from  Tell  Shak-hab  in  Jeidur. 
Next  west  is  Wady  Ilamy  Sukker,  which  has  a  great  fall, 
and  runs  through  a  deep  chasm  of  precipitous  rocks.  Then 
Wady  Sideh ;  and  lastly  Wady  Mu'akkar,  coming  from  the 
southern  parts  of  Jebel  Heish.^ 

In  summer  the  waters  from  the  mountain  dry  up  in  the 
plain ;  and  then  the  stream  of  the  Yarmuk  is  wholly  sup- 
plied from  the  fountains  at  Mezarib,  the  marsliy  tract  near 
Dilly,  and  the  'Allan  and  perhaps  one  or  two  other  per- 
manent sources  in  Jaulan.  At  Mezarib  are  a  number  of 
fountains  ;  the  waters  of  which  flow  together  and  form  a 
pond  or  lake  nearly  half  an  hour  in  circumference,  with  an 
island  in  the  middle.  Tlie  water,  as  it  issues  from  the 
sprhigs,  is  slightly  tepid ;  in  the  lake  it  is  as  clear  as  crystal. 
The  lake  is  deeper  than  a  man's  height,  and  full  of  fish. 
The  lake  and  springs  are  known  also  as  el-Bujjeh.^ 

1  Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  IT.  p.  212  and  Map.  Burckhardt,  Syria, 
p.  273.    Wetzstein  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  Erdk.,  Aug.  1859,  p.  150,  and  Map. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  282,  284,  273.    Seetzen,  Reisen,  L  pp.  352,  353. 

3  Porter's  Handbook,  p.  321.   Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  241. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 


175 


In  its  western  part,  the  Yarinuk  flows  through  a  deep 
and  wild  ravine,  the  sides  of  which  are  rugged  cUffs  of  ba- 
salt, in  some  places  more  than  one  hundred  feet  high.  The 
banks  along  the  deep  valley  are  cultivated  by  the  Arabs 
Menadhereh  (sing.  Mandhur),  who  dwell  in  tents.  Further 
down,  the  Wady  becomes  so  narrow  as  to  leave  no  space 
between  the  stream  and  the  precipices  on  each  side. 

North  of  Um  Keis,  the  ancient  Gadara,  which  lies  on  the 
summit  of  the  mountain  ridge  between  the  Yarmuk  on  the 
north  and  the  Wady  el-' Arab  in  the  south,  in  the  deep 
chasm  of  the  river,  and  an  hour  distant  from  Um  Keis,  are 
the  warm  springs  of  Gadara  or  Amatha  (Heb.  Hammath, 
warm  springs),  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  and  by 
other  early  writers.^  They  rise  up  in  the  bottom  of  the  chasm, 
between  the  stream  and  the  northern  precipice.  Three  prin- 
cipal fountains  are  spoken  of  at  intervals  of  an  hour  between ; 
one  N.  N.  E.  of  Um  Keis,  one  north,  and  the  third  X.  N.  W. 
from  the  same  place.  There  is  also  a  fourth  fountain  on 
the  south  side  of  the  stream.  The  westernmost  spring  is  the 
hottest  of  all,  being  43°  C.  or  109°  F.  The  hand  cannot  be 
held  in  it  for  any  length  of  time.  The  water  emits  a  strong 
smell  of  sulphur  ;  and  deposits  a  yellow  sulphurous  crust 
upon  the  stones.  The  spring  bubbles  up  in  a  basin  some 
forty  feet  in  circumference  and  five  feet  deep,  surrounded 
by  a  dilapidated  wall.  The  water  is  so  clear,  that  minute 
objects  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin  can  be  distinctly  seen. 
Near  by  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  building  for  baths. 
In  the  last  days  of  May,  1858,  Roth  found  here  three  hun- 
dred people,  many  of  them  families,  who  had  come  to  use 
the  waters  ;  most  of  them  Christians  from  the  region  west  of 
the  lake.    They  were  living  in  booths.    The  upper  spring, 

1  Onotnast.,  Articles  JEmath,  Gadara.    Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  775. 


176 


rilYSICAL  GEOGKAniY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


ill  like  manner,  bubbles  up  in  a  similar  basin  ;  its  tempera- 
ture is  only  34°  C.  or  do°  F.,  and  the  odor  of  sulphur  is  less 
strong.  Copious  streams  flow  from  all  the  fountains  to  the 
river :  which  thus  receives  large  accessions  to  its  volume  of 
water.    The  Arabs  reckon  ten  springs  in  all.^ 

An  hour  below  the  fountains,  the  Yarmuk  issues  from  the 
mountaijis  upon  the  Ghjr  ;  and  after  another  hour  receives 
the  WaJy  el-' Arab.  The  river  in  the  mountains  runs  with 
great  swiftness  along  its  rocky  chasm  ;  in  the  Gh^r  it  has 
its  own  lower  valley,  like  the  Jordan  :  and  is  everywhere 
thickly  skirted  with  oleanders.  The  stream  is  here  about 
forty  yards  wide  :  and  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is  four  or 
five  feet  deep.  It  enters  the  Jordan  five  miles  below  the 
lake  of  Tiberias  ;  and  has  there  nearly  as  much  water  as  the 
Jordan.  Xot  far  above  the  junction  is  a  bridge  over  the 
Yarmuk.  built  of  volcanic  stone,  with  five  arches.  It  belongs 
to  the  same  great  road,  which  coming  from  Beisan  crosses 
the  Jisr-el-Mejami'a,  and  leads  to  Damascus  through  tlie  re- 
gion east  of  tlie  lake.- 

T/ie  Jahhok.  The  next  permanent  tributary  of  tlie  Jor- 
dan on  this  side  is  the  brook  Jabbok  of  Scripture,  once 
called  '  the  river  of  GacL'  ^  now  the  Xahr  ez-Zerka,  which  en- 
ters the  Jordan  nearly  opposite  Xabulus,  and  about  half 
way  between  the  two  lower  lakes.  It  has  its  remotest  sources 
on  the  plateau  east  of  the  mountains  ;  and  breaks  down 
through  the  latter  by  a  deep  and  sometimes  wild  cliasm,  bor- 
dered on  each  side  by  the  loftiest  heights  of  Jebel  'Ajliin  and 

1  Sectzen,  Eeisen,  I.  p.  3o0.  Biirckliardt,  pp.  270, 277.  Iiby  and  Mangles,  p.  00. 
Buckingham,  Palestine,  pp.  442-444.  Koth,  in  Petermann's  Gco^aph.  Mittlieil., 
18-59,  p.  2S4- 

-  Seetzen,  Reiscn,  p.  3-31.    Lurckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  273,  274.    Lynch,  Official 
Kcport,  p.  20.   Roth,  in  Petcnuann's  GeOaTaph.  Mittheil.,  ISjO,  p.  2S3. 
3  Gen.  xxxii.  22,  23  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 


177 


the  Belka.  The  source  mostly  spoken  of,  is  at  the  ruins  of 
'Amman  (^Rabhath-ammon)  ;  from  whence  the  valloy  is  said 
to  sweep  OiT  northeastward  by  'Ain  Ghazaleh  to  Kid'at  ez- 
Zerka,  a  castle  four  hours  distant  from  'Amman,  on  the  Haj 
route.  Here  in  winter  is  a  considerable  stream,  gathered 
mainly  from  the  north  and  east.  Turning  here  northwest 
and  then  west  it  passes  down  through  the  great  notch  of  the 
mountains,  receiving  the  stream  coming  from  Jerash,  an 
hour  north ;  and,  according  to  Seetzen,  no  less  than  nine 
other  minor  streams.  In  winter  the  river  is  often  swollen 
and  impassable  ;  its  immediate  bed  through  the  mountains 
is  a  deep,  narrow,  and  sometimes  wild  ravine.  In  summer, 
the  upper  branches  become  dry  ;  and  the  stream  then  dwin- 
dles to  a  small  and  shallow  river.  The  channel  is  every- 
where bordered  with  canes  and  oleanders.  The  Zerka  issues 
from  the  mountains  an  hour  south  of  Abu  'Obeida ;  and 
Burckhardt  speaks  of  a  smaller  northern  branch  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  only  from  that  place  ;  perhaps  originally  nothing 
more  than  a  mill-race,  for  which  it  is  still  used.  The  main 
stream,  according  to  the  same  writer,  enters  the  Jordan 
about  an  hour  and  a  half  southwest  of  the  spot  where  it 
issues  from  the  mountain.  This  is  doubtless  a  correct  ac- 
count; as  Burckhardt  had  the  stream  in  view  for  several 
hours.  In  the  Ghor  it  has  its  own  lower  valley,  like  the 
Jordan,  with  white,  chalky-looking  clifFs  on  each  side.^ 

The  earliest  mention  of  this  river  in  Scripture,  is  where 
Jacob  with  his  whole  family  "  passed  over  the  ford  Jabbok," 
on  his  way  back  from  Syria,  and  then  wrestled  all  night 

I  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  347,  3C8,  657.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  pp.  392,  393.  Lord 
Lindsay,  pp.  278-280,  287.  Molyncux,  in  Journal  of  Royal  Geograpli.  Soc, 
XVIII.  p.  119. 

23 


178 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


with  the  angel.  The  next  day  he  met  his  brother  Esau.^ 
The  Jabbok  was  the  northern  border  of  the  children  of  Am- 
nion, and  afterwards  of  Sihon  king  of  the  Amorites.^  Moses 
passed  over  the  Jabbok  to  subdue  Og  king  of  Bashan  ;  and 
the  river  was  tlie  boundary  between  northern  and  southern 
Gilead,  as  also  between  Manasseh  on  the  north  and  Reuben 
and  Gad  on  the  south. ^ 

Other  Wadys.  Tlie  courses  of  Wady  Sha'ib  and  Wady 
Hesban  have  already  been  described.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
they  may  not  have  small  perennial  streams.* 

Streams  flowing  to  the  Dead  Sea.  These  are  strictly 
not  tributaries  of  the  Jordan,  but  they  run  to  the  Ghor,  and 
mingle  their  waters  with  those  of  Jordan  in  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  Zerka  Ma'in.  This  stream  is  not  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. It  collects  its  waters  from  several  branches  on  the 
high  plain  of  the*  Belka,  and  passes  down  along  the  northern 
end  of  Jebel  'Attarus,  by  a  narrow  and  precipitous  chasm, 
to  the  Dead  Sea.  One  source  is  near  Ma'in,  the  ancient 
Baal-Meon,  which  thus  gives  name  to  the  stream.  Its  course 
from  Ma'in  is  about  southwest  for  two  hours,  and  then  west. 
The  Wady  is  here  deep,  but  an  ancient  highway  from  Ma'in 
crosses  it,  and  passes  down  on  its  left  side.  At  four  hours 
from  Ma'in,  and  below  the  end  of  Jebel  Attarus  (on  which 
are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  fortress  Machserus),  the  way 
becomes  impassable  for  liorses,  terminating  at  what  seems  a 
precipice.  A  narrow  zigzag  path  leads  down  to  the  cele- 
brated hot  springs.  These  are  about  two  hours  distant  from 
the  Dead  Sea.    The  valley  is  very  narrow,  and  on  both  sides 

1  Gen.  xxxii.  22-28,  xxxiii.  1-20. 

2  Josh.  xii.  2;  Deut.  iii.  16;  Num.  xxi.  24;  Judg.  xi.  13,  22.  Joseph.  Antiq., 
4.  5.  2,  3. 

3  Deut.  iii.  1,  2.   Joseph.  Antiq.,  4.  5,  3. 
*  See  above,  p.  87. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST.  179 

are  high,  rocky  cliffs.  The  stream  enters  the  Dead  Sea 
through  a  chasm  of  sandstone,  and  has  before  its  mouth  a 
low  point  or  delta.  The  chasm  is  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  wide,  with  perpendicular  walls  of  red  and  yellow  sand- 
stone, at  first  eighty  feet  liigh,  but  rising  further  back  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  stream  is  a  copious  brook, 
twelve^  feet  across  by  ten  inches  deep,  and  descends  along 
the  chasm  with  great  velocity,  and  with  several  cascades. 
The  water  is  turbid,  with  a  temperature  of  94°  F.^ 

The  hot  springs  above  in  the  valley  are  the  Callirrhos  of 
ancient  writers,  to  which  the  first  Herod  repaired  during  his 
last  illness,  without  benefit.^  They  have  been  visited  in 
modern  times  only  by  Seetzen  and  the  party  of  Irby  and 
Mangles.3  On  the  north  side  of  the  wild  and  narrojv  chasm 
no  less  than  four  principal  springs  burst  forth  in  a  distance 
of  half  a  mile,  with  many  smaller  ones.  In  one  place  a  con- 
siderable stream  of  hot  water  falls  over  a  high,  perpendicu- 
lar rock,  the  sides  of  which  are  colored  of  a  brilliant  yellow, 
from  the  deposit  of  sulphur.  At  the  bottom  of  the  chasm 
rushes  down  what  may  be  termed  a  hot  river.  The  water  is 
quite  hot,  but  not  boiling ;  the  hand  cannot  be  held  in  it  for 
half  a  minute.  Seetzen  compares  the  temperature  with  that 
of  the  hot  baths  near  Tiberias,  Avhich  is  144°  F.^  It  is  here 
probably  somewhat  higher.  The  chasm  is  filled  with  steam, 
which  in  this  confined  spot  combines  with  the  burning  rays 
of  the  sun  to  produce  an  insufferable  heat.    The  water  de- 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  408, 11.  pp.  330,  333,  336, 370.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  309. 
Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  pp.  143,  144.    Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  370 

2  Joseph.  Antiq.,  17.  6.  5.  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  33.  5.  Ibid.,  7.  6.  2, 3.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat., 
5.  15.  V.  16.    Onomast.,  Article  Beehneon. 

3  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  336, 337.  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  pp.  144,  145.  Legh, 
in  American  Biblical  Repository,  1833,  p.  648. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  384  [III.  p.  259]. 


180  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

posits  sulphur,  but  is  itself  tasteless.  The  bottom  is  filled 
with  a  thicket  of  canes,  aspines,  and  wild  palms,  which  spring 
out  of  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.  The  ancient  name  Callir- 
rhos  refers  rather  to  the  springs,  and  not  to  the  place.  In- 
deed, there  could  have  been  here  no  permanent  town  ;  noth- 
ing more,  probabl}^,  than  booths  or  temporary  dwellings  for 
those  who  us5d  the  waters.  The  whole  surface  of  the  shelf 
where  the  springs  are,  is  strewed  over  with  tiles  and  broken 
pottery,  and  four  Roman  medals  of  copper  were  also  found. 
Josephus  speaks  of  the  place  (tz^tto?),  not  the  fountains,  as 
called  Baaras,  which  Eusebius  and  Jerome  also  name,  writ- 
ing it  Baris  or  Baru} 

Seetzen  relates,  that  half  an  hour  south  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Zerka  Ma'in,  another  large  brook  of  hot  water  enters  the 
Dead  Sea,  coming  from  a  second  cluster  of  hot  springs  not 
far  above. 2 

The  Arnon.  This  river,  so  often  mentioned  in  Scripture 
as  a  Nahal  (^^5)?  called  cl-Mojib,  and  is  made  up 

of  two  main  branches,  —  one,  the  largest,  being  the  Mujib 
itself,  and  the  other,  on  the  north,  called  el-Walch. 

The  Waleh  rises  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Belka,  and 
passes  on  the  north  of  Dibon.  It  has  a  little  more  water  in 
this  part  than  the  Zerka  Ma'in,  and  runs  in  a  rocky  bed  at 
tlic  bottom  of  a  deep  ravine,  the  brook  being  overgrown  with 
willows,  oleanders,  and  tamarisks.  The  Walch  glides  down 
the  mountain  side  in  just  such  a  deep  bed  of  basaltic  rock, 
and  unites  with  the  Mujib  at  the  distance  of  about  two  hours 
above  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.^ 

*  Joseph.  BcL  Jud.,  7.  6.  3.   Onomast.,  Articles,  Beelmeorij  CariatJiaim.  Irby 
and  Mangles,  1817,  p.  144. 
8  Seetzen,  Relsen,  IL  pp.  3G8-370. 

«  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  409,  IL  pp.  342,  343.   Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  370,  371. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST. 


181 


Tho  Mqjib  itself  has  its  principal  source  near  Kul'at  cl- 
Kutraneli,  a  station  on  the  Haj  route ;  it  has  in  this  upper 
part,  where  it  flows  northwest,  several  names,  and  takes  that 
of  el  Mojib  about  an  hour  above  the  bridge  Aroer.  There  it 
receives  another  head  branch  from  the  northeast,  which,  ris- 
ing not  far  from  the  Haj  route,  at  first  is  called  el-Lejum  ; 
but  after  receiving  two  or  three  brooks,  takes  the  name  of 
Enkheileh,  and  flows  in  a  deep  bed.  This  last  name  sug- 
gests the  ancient  Nahaliel,  the  second  statian  of  the  Hebrews 
in  this  region  after  quitting  the  desert.^  Near  the  confluence 
of  the  two  streams  forming  the  Mojib,  is  a  tract  of  pasture 
ground  in  the  valley,  having  in  the  middle  of  it  a  hill  with 
ruins  upon  it ;  near  the  stream  -are  several  wind-mills.  The 
common  road  from  Hesban  to  Kerak  crosses  the  Arnon  and 
its  valley  near  the  remains  of  Aroer.  There  is  here  a  com- 
paratively modern  bridge  in  ruins,  and  a  wind-mill. 

The  view  of  the  Mojib  and  its  chasm  at  this  point  is  very 
striking.  The  river  flows  at  the  bottom  along  a  narrow  strip 
of  verdant,  level  ground,  about  forty  yards  across.  From 
this  the  steep  and  barren  banks  rise  up  to  a  great  height, 
covered  with  immense  blocks  of  stone,  which  have  rolled 
down  from  the  upper  strata.  Hence,  when  viewed  from 
above,  the  valley  looks  like  a  deep  chasm  formed  by  some 
tremendous  convulsion  of  the  earth,  into  which  there  seems 
no  possibility  of  descending  to  the  bottom.  The  river  flows 
in  a  rocky  bed,  and,  when  Burckhardt  saw  it  in  July,  was 
almost  dried  up ;  but  the  bed  bore  evident  marks  of  its  im- 
petuosity in  the  rainy  season.  The  valley  has  few  oleanders 
or  other  shrubs.^ 

*  Num.  xxi.  19. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  372,  373.  Comp.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  pp.  410,  413. 
Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  142. 


182 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


The  chasm  of  the  river  as  it  passes  down  the  mountain 
side  is  less  deep,  but  rocky  and  wild.  Seetzen  in  January 
found  the  stream  here  only  a  few  paces  wide  ;  but  it  flowed 
with  great  velocity,  roaring  and  foaming  over  the  rocks  in 
many  places.^ 

The  Mojib  enters  the  Dead  Sea  through  a  chasm  similar 
to  that  of  the  Zerka  Ma'in,  having  before  it  a  low  delta, 
across  which  the  stream  flows.  The  chasm  is  nearest  a  hun- 
dred feet  in  width,  formed  by  high,  perpendicular  cliffs  of 
red,  brown,  and  yellow  sandstone,  all  worn  by  the  water  hito 
fantastic  forms,  like  Egyptian  architecture.  The  chasm  runs 
up  in  a  direct  line  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  then 
turns  slowly,  with  graceful  curves,  to  the  southeast.  Seetzen 
waded  through  the  stream  late  in  January,  and  gives  it  at 
forty  feet  wide,  and  only  knee-deep.  Lynch  early  in  May 
found  the  stream  eighty  feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep.  The 
chasm  is  a  striking  object,  as  seen  from  'Ain  Jidy  on  the 
opposite  shore .2 

In  Scripture  the  Arnon  marks  the  boundary  between  Moab 
and  the  Amorites  ;  as  at  the  present  .day  it  divides  the  district 
of  Kerak  from  the  Belka.^  It  became,  of  course,  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  towards  Moab  ;^  and 
at  the  same  time  the  southern  border  of  Palestine  on  this 
side.  Hence,  as  in  the  west  the  land  of  Israel  extended 
"  from  Dan  to  Beersheba ;  "  so,  on  the  east,  it  was  said  to 
reach  "  from  the  river  Arnon  unto  mount  Hermon."  ^ 

Wady  Kerak  or  W.  Der'a'ah.    Both  these  names  would 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  11.  pp.  346,  347. 

2  Seetzen,  Reisen,  H.  pp.  364,  366.  Lynch,  Narrative,  pp.  367,  368.  Biblical 
Researches,  L  p.  502  [H.  p.  206]. 

»  Num.  xxi.  13,  15,  26;  Josh.  xii.  2;  Judg.  xi.  22.   Seetzen,  Reisen,  H.  p.  348. 

*  Deut.  iii.  16;  Judg.  xi.  13,  26. 

*  Josh.  xii.  1;  Deut.  iii.  8,  iv.  48. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  EAST.  183 


be  common  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  on  the 
western,  we  heard  only  the  former.  Burckhardt  has  both. 
The  Wady  has  its  beginnings  in  the  deep  ravines  immedi- 
ately around  the  cliff  on  which  Kerak  stands  ;  and  runs 
down  in  a  winding  course  about  W.  N.  W.  to  the  isthmus  of 
the  peninsula  in  the  Dead  Sea.  The  stream  flows  upon  the 
isthmus  to  the  northern  bay.  In  January,  Seetzen  found 
in.it  more  water  than  in  the  Arnon  ;  early  in  June,  Irby  and 
Mangles  speak  of  it  as  a  considerable  brook  ;  but  the  people 
of  Kerak  told  Lynch  that  water  flows  in  it  only  in  the  rainy 
season.  The  valley  is,  in  many  places,  a  deep  and  wild 
chasm ;  and  is  distinctly  traceable  from  the  opposite  coast. 
The  usual  path  between  Kerak  and  the  peninsula  passes 
along  above  the  cliffs  on  its  southern  side.  There  is  no 
allusion  to  this  valley  in  Scripture.^ 

Wadij  el-Alisij  or  W.  el-Kardhy,  This  Wady  has  its  be- 
ginning east  of  the  Kul'at  el-Ahsy,  or  el-Hassa,  on  the  Haj 
route.  It  is  there  dry  in  summer,  but  there  are  fountains 
not  far  west  of  the  castle.  Like  the  streams  further  north, 
it  breaks  down  by  a  deep  chasm  through  the  high  table-land, 
and  descends  by  a  deep  gorge  through  the  mountain  to  the 
Ghor  just  south  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  a  side  ravine,  just 
above  the  point  where  the  road  from  Kerak  to  Tiifileh 
crosses,  is  a  hot  spring.  The  stream,  in  the  lower  part,  is 
permanent.  In  the  Ghor  it  takes  the  name  of  "Wady  el-Ku- 
rahy  ;  and  runs  to  the  southeast  corner  of  the  Dead  Sea  as 
a  small  river,  fertilizing  the  adjacent  tract.^ 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  519  [II.  p.  231].  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  390.  Seetzen, 
Reisen,  I.  p.  417,  II.  p.  350.  Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  109,  137,  138.  Lynch,  Narra- 
tive, p.  354. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  112,  157  fll.  pp.  488,  555].  Burckhardt,  SjTia, 
pp.  400,  401,  G58.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  pp.  417,  427.  Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  108, 
114,  137. 


184 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Wady  el-Alisy  forms  the  natural  boundary  between  the 
district  of  Kerak  or  ancient  Moah  on  the  north,  and  the 
district  Jebal  or  ancient  Gebal,  Gebalene,  or  Edom^  on  the 
soiith.i  The  mountains  of  Moab  are  high,  and  terminate 
here  in  a  conspicuous  bUiff ;  those  on  the  south  are  for  a 
time  lower.  In  all  probability,  therefore,  this  Wady  is  the 
Nalial  or  brook  Zered  of  Scripture,  over  which  the  Hebrews 
went  in  order  to  enter  the  land  of  Moab  from  the  south. 
They  doubtless  crossed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Arnon,  some- 
where in  its  upper  part,  where  it  would  present  no  difficulty 

in.   THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  WEST. 

The  streams  which  enter  the  Jordan  from  the  west,  are 
fewer  and  much  smaller  tlian  those  coming  from  the  east. 

Tiie  Derddrah.  Tiiis  stream  drains  the  region  of  Mcrj 
'Ayun,  a  fine  oval  basin  surrounded  by  ridges  of  higher 
ground ;  by  which  it  is  separated  from  Wady  et-Teim  in  the 
east,  and  from  the  chasm  of  the  Litany  on  the  west.  The 
main  source  is  in  the  northern  part,  where  large  fountains 
break  forth  under  a  bank ;  and  in  front  of  these  arc  the  re- 
mains of  a  thick  wall  or  dam,  intended  to  raise  the  water  to 
a  sufficient  height  for  mills  or  for  extensive  irrigation.  The 
stream  is  carried  through  the  middle  of  the  plain,  sometimes 
in  artificial  channels ;  and  afterward  breaks  down  as  a  con- 
siderable brook,  by  a  deep  ravine,  through  the  high  ground 
in  the  southeast  of  the  Merj.  It  is  understood  to  run  to  the 
Hasbany,  before  the  junction  of  the  latter  with  the  other 
streams ;  but  has  not  always  water  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course.^ 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  401.   Seetzen,  Rcisen,  I.  p.  427. 

2  Deut.  ii.  13,  14;  comp.  v.  18;  Num.  xxi.  12.  Biblical  Researches,  11.  p.  157 
in.  p.  555] 

8  Later  Biblical  Researclies,  pp.  372,  374,  395. 


THE  JORDAN:  TRIBUTARIES  FROM  THE  WEST. 


185 


Besides  two  or  three  fine  brooks  of  the  rainy  season  and 
spring,  as  in  the  Wadys  Hcndaj,  Rubudiyeh,  and  el-Bireh,  we 
meet  with  no  stream  from  the  west  until  we  reach  the  valley 
of  Jezreel.    This  valley,  as  such,  has  already  been  described.^ 

Nahr  el-Jdlud,  This  stream,  which  flows  down  through 
the  great  valley  of  Jezreel,  has  its  highest  source  in  the  '  Ain 
el-Meiyitch  or  Dead  fountain,  which  springs  up  at  the  foot 
of  the  rocky  wall  just  under  the  village  of  Zer'in  (Jezreel) . 
But  the  main  source  is  the  great  fountain  'Ain  Jalud,  twenty 
minutes  further  down  the  valley,  flowing  out  from  under  a 
sort  of  cavern  in  the  wall  of  conglomerate  rock,  which  here 
forms  the  northern  base  of  Gilboa.  The  water  is  excellent ; 
and  spreads  out  at  once  into  a  fine  limpid  pool,  forty  or  fifty 
feet  in  diameter,  with  multitudes  of  small  fish  in  it.  From 
this  reservoir  a  copious  mill-stream  flows  off  eastward  down 
the  valley.  There  is  every  reason  to  regard  this  as  the  an- 
cient' fountain  by  Jezreel,'  where  Saul  and  Jonathan  pitched 
before  their  last  fatal  battle.  It  is  also  the  fons  Tubania  of 
the  crusaders.2 

Lower  down,  the  brook  flows  along  the  northern  part  of 
the  plain  or  valley  ;  and  receives  another  mill-stream  com- 
ing from  the  southwest,  from  near  the  base  of  the  mountain. 
But  the  water  is  mainly  taken  out  by  several  canals  for  irri- 
gation, leaving  the  bed  of  the  brook  a  mere  ditch  of  mud 
and  water.  We  crossed  it  as  such  in  1852.^  It  receives 
further  supplies  from  various  small  fountains  ;  and  likewise 
from  the  marsh  which  exists  on  the  southwest  of  Beisan. 

At  the  site  of  ancient  Beth-shean  or  Scythopolis,  north  of 

1  See  above,  pp.  91,  92. 

2  1  Sam.  xxix.  1.  Will.  Tyr.,  22,  26.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  323  [III. 
p.  1G8]. 

8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  338. 

24 


186 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  present  village,  the  Jalud  flows  along,  as  a  considerable 
stream  of  brackish  water,  between  the  northern  wall  of  the 
vailej  and  the  dark  Tell  on  which  stood  the  ancient  citadel 
of  the  place  ;  and  breaks  down  by  a  ravine  to  the  Ghor, 
where  it  runs  to  the  Jordan.  A  stream  coming;  from  the 
the  south,  apparently  from  the  marsh,  joins  it  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  Tell ;  and  two  others,  one  passing  at  the  village, 
and  another  a  mill-stream  further  south,  tumble  down  the 
slope  and  go  to  join  the  Jidad  in  the  plain  below.  The 
one  by  the  village  is" obviously  an  artificial  course  ;  and  per- 
haps the  other  likewise.  The  water  of  both  has  a  slight  odor 
of  sulphur,  and  a  darkish  hue.^  Scripture  makes  no  allusion 
to  the  Jalud  below  the  fountain. 

Stream  of  Wady  el-Fdria.  This  valley  has  been  already 
described.^  Its  fine  brook  in  winter  drains  the  whole  north- 
ern part  of  the  plain  Miikhna  by  Nabulus,  and  receives 
branches  from  several  side  valleys.  It  is  a  beautiful  stream, 
fringed  with  oleanders,  and  meandering  through  the  rich, 
meadow-like  plain,  until  it  enters  the  Jordan,  just  north 
of  Kurn  Surtabeh.  The  Kurawa  has  several  rivulets  ;  but 
whether  there  is  always  water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  main 
channel,  is  uncertain,  though  probable.^ 

Water  of  Jericho.  This  water,  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
Joshua,  is,  doubtless,  the  winter  stream  of  the  Wady  Kelt, 
which  passes  down  by  Jericho,  and  receives  the  waters  of 
Elisha's  fountain.* 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  327.  2  See  above,  pp.  92,  93. 

8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  .303,  304.   Tan  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  124. 
*  Josh.  xvi.  1.    See  above,  p.  94. 


RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


187 


IV.   RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 

The  rivers  which  enter  the  Mediterranean  are  few,  and 
their  permanent  streams  in  no  case  reach  back  further  than 
the  plain  along  the  coast. 

The  Belus.  The  Belus,  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for 
the  accidental  discovery  of  the  art  of  making  glass,  is  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  Josephus,  and  other  ancient  writers,  but 
not  in  Scripture.^  It  is  now  called  Nahr  Na'man,  and  has 
its  rise  near  Tell  Kurdany  in  the  middle  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  plain  of  'Akka.  Here  is  a  marshy  tract  with 
large  fountains ;  there  is  an  ancient  dam  below  the  marsh, 
which  raises  the  water  so  as  to  form  a  small  lake,  and  drive 
several  mills.  This  is  doubtless  the  marsh,  palus  Cendevia, 
spoken  of  by  Pliny  as  the  source  of  the  Belus.  It  runs  as  a 
small  river  about  N.  N.  W.  through  the  plain,  and  enters 
the  sea  about  fifteen  minutes  south  of  the  gate  of  'Akka.  Its 
whole  course  is  about  six  miles.  It  receives  Wady  'Abilin 
(Jiphthah-el)  and  Wady  Sha'ab,  both  coming  from  the 
mountains,  but  they  bring  to  it  no  water  save  in  the  rainy 
season. 2 

The  Kishon.  "  That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon,'* 
renowned  as  it  is  in  Scripture,  is  mentioned  only  five  times  ; 
referring  in  four  passages  to  the  victory  of  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak, and  once  to  the  slaughter  of  the  prophets  of  Baal  by 
Elijah.^  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  these  notices  relate 
to  the  Kishon  in  or  near  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  where  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year  it  is  wholly  dry.    The  Kishon  is  called 

1  riin.  Hist.  Nat.,  5.  17.  Ibid.,  3G,  65.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jucl.,2.  10.  2.  Later  Bib- 
lical Researches,  p.  104. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  104.    Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  I.  p.  480. 

3  Jadg.  iv.  7,  13,  v.  21;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9  [10];  1  Kings  xviii.  40. 


188 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


a  Nalial  apparently  from  the  deep  gully  or  ravine  in 

wliicli  it  flows. 

The  remote  winter  sources  of  the  Kishon,  now  called  Nahr 
el-Mukutta'  (the  ford),  are  the  water-courses  which  drain  the 
northern  and  southern  tracts  or  arms  of  the  great  plain  ex- 
tending eastward  from  this  latter.  That  from  the  southern 
arm  is  the  most  distant,  having  its  beginnings  from  up  to- 
wards the  height  of  ground,  and  receiving  also  the  brook  from 
Jenm  and  from  similar  fountains  further  west.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  water-course  in  the  northern  valley  is  less  deli- 
nitely  marked.  From  the  village  of  Endor,  over  against 
Mount  Tabor,  a  shallow  Wady  passes  down  northeast  to 
Wady  Sherar,  and  so  to  Wady  cl-Bireh  and  the  Jordan. 
Not  far  west  of  Endor  another  small  Wady  descends  north- 
west, draining  its  waters  to  the  Kishon.  In  this  northern 
arm  of  the  plain,  therefore,  the  division  of  the  waters  would 
appear  to  be,  in  general,  not  far  from  a  line  drawn  from  the 
summit  of  Tabor  to  the  summit  of  Little  Hermon. 

The  waters  of  the  rainy  season,  which  descend  from  the 
western  slopes  of  Tabor  and  the  hills  around  Nazareth,  not 
only  render  this  the  larger  branch  of  the  Kishon,  but  also 
sometimes  inundate  the  northern  part  of  the  plain  towards 
Iksal  and  Deburieh.  It  was  thus  inundated  at  the  time  of 
the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor,  April  IG,  1799,  between  the 
French  and  Arabs,  where  many  of  the  latter  are  expressly 
said  to  have  been  drowned  in  the  stream  coming  from  Deb- 
urieh, which  then  overflowed  a  part  of  the  plain. ^  One 
traveller,  in  crossing  from  Solam  to  Nazareth  early  in  June, 
describes  himself  as  passing,  in  half  an  hour  from  Solam,  a 
considerable  brook  from  the  eastward,  and  afterwards  some 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  339.   Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  328  [HL  p.  177]. 


RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


180 


others,  which  flowed  into  a  small  lake  on  the  north  side  of 
the  plain. ^ 

The  place  of  junction  of  the  two  arms  of  the  Kishon  is  not 
specified,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  near  the  middle  of  the 
plain,  not  far  east  of  the  road  between  Lcjjun  and  Nazareth. 
Along  the  course  of  the  stream  in  this  part,  in  early  spring, 
the  ground  is  miry  and  difficult.  Prokesch,  passing  from 
Lcjjun  to  Nazareth  in  April,  came  upon  the  Kishon  flowing 
in  a  deep  bed  through  marshy  ground,  and  wandered  about 
for  some  time  to  find  the  way,  until  he  was  set  right  by  an 
Arab.  On  this  route  arc  the  ruins  of  a  Saracenic  bridge 
The  brook  from  Lejjun  ('  the  waters  of  Mcgiddo'),^  and  also 
the  frequent  brooks  from  the  southern  hills  between  that 
point  and  Carmel,  all  conspire  to  render  the  soil  in  many 
places  wet  and  miry  in  the  rainy  season,  and  for  some  time 
later.  The  Kishon  in  its  course  strikes  the  base  of  Carmel, 
and  then  passes  down  to  the  plain  of  'Akka  by  a  narrow  val- 
ley between  that  mountain  and  the  low  hills  west  of  Naza- 
reth. 

All  these  circumstances,  especially  the  inundations  and 
the  marshes  further  down,  fully  bear  out  the  sacred  poetess 
in  affirming  that  the  forces  of  the  enemy  were  swept  away 
by  the  Kishon,  swollen  as  the  stream  doubtless  was  by  the 
tempest  and  rain,  with  which  "  they  fought  from  heaven ; 
the  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera."  * 

On  the  other  hand,  later  in  the  season,  and  earlier  or  later 
in  different  years,  the  case  is  altogether  reversed.  In  the 
middle  of  June,  1838,  in  travelling  from  Jenin  to  Nazareth, 

1  Monro,  Summer  Ramble,  I.  p.  281. 

2  Prokesch,  Reiso  ins  li.  Land,  p.  129.  Wildenbruch  in  Monatsb.  dcr  Ges. 
fiir  Erdk.,  1844,  p.  233.  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  3G4  [IIL  p.  230].  Comp. 
Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  IL  p.  141. 

8  Judg.  V.  19.  <  Judg.  V.  20,  21. 


190 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


we  found  not  a  drop  of  water  in  the  plain.  Wildenbrucli, 
passing  still  later  from  Lejjun  to  Nazareth,  crossed  midway 
of  the  plain  the  broad  and  dry  bed  of  the  Kishon  with  its 
ruined  bridge.  In  the  middle  of  April,  1852,  we  crossed  the 
Kishon  on  our  way  from  Tell  esh-Shemam  to  Lejjun  ;  it  was 
then  a  pretty  brook,  flowing  in  a  deep  gully  in  the  plain, 
over  a  bed  of  gravel.  Not  far  above  were  pools  and  miry 
places,  and  the  Arabs  said  the  gravel  here  was  only  a  few 
inches  thick,  and  treacherous.  Early  in  April,  too,  W.  M. 
Thomson  once  crossed  the  Kishon  below  its  entrance  into 
the  plain  of  'Akka,  and  found  its  bed  quite  dry.  Of  course, 
TVady  Melik  was  also  dry.^ 

The  permanent  sources,  then,  of  the  Kishon  or  el-Mu- 
kutta',  are  below  the  point  where  its  course  enters  the  plain 
of  'Akka.  Shaw  was  the  first  to  speak  of  them.  They  flow 
out,  as  large  fountains,  from  the  roots  of  Carmel,  about  three 
miles  east  of  Haifa.  They  are  called  Sa'adeh  or  Sa'adiyeh, 
are  very  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  water  is 
brackish.  A  deep,  broad  stream  is  formed  at  once,  which 
winds  sluggishly  through  a  tract  of  marsh  to  the  sea.  Dur- 
ing the  rains  of  winter  it  is  of  course  greatly  enlarged  by  the 
river  which  then  comes  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.^  These 
sources '  of  the  Kishon  thus  have  a  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  'Aujch  at  E,as  el-'Ain. 

The  passage  of  the  Mukutta'  near  its  mouth,  on  the  way 
between  'Akka  and  Haifa,  differs  greatly,  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year.    In  winter  and  spring,  when  the  stream 

1  Biblical  Researches,  11.  pp.  3G3-365  [HI.  pp.  229-233].  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, p.  116.  "Wildenbruch  in  Monatsb.  dcr  Ges.  fUr  Erdk.,  1S44,  p.  233. 
Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  p.  141.   See  above,  p.  107. 

2  Shaw's  Travels  (4to.),  p.  274.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  IL  p.  141.  Porter's 
Handbook,  p.  383. 


RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


191 


is  swollen,  the  traveller  has  to  cross  in  a  boat,  and  let  liis 
animals  swim  after  it.  The  western  winds  drive  up  tlic  sand, 
and  form  a  bar  across  its  month.  This  renders  the  river 
fordable  later  in  spring,  with  three  or  four  feet  of  water  on 
the  bar.  Still  later  in  the  season,  when  the  river  is  lowest, 
the  sand-bank  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  forms 
a  causeway  through  which  the  water  percolates,  and  on  which 
the  traveller  may  pass  over  dry  shod,  until  the  swelling- 
stream  again  washes  the  bank  away.^ 

South  of  Mount  Carmel  the  streams,  with  one  exception, 
are  not  large,  and  only  a  few  are  permanent. 

Nahr  Belka.  This  stream  is  half  an  hour  south  of  Tan- 
tura,-  the  ancient  Dor.  Though  small,  and  of  no  great 
length,  it  is  deep  and  miry,  so  that  travellers  ride  into  the 
sea  and  pass  around  its  mouth.  It  seems  permanent,  and  is 
known  also  as  Nahr  Tanturah  and  Nahr  Kurajeh.^ 

Nahr  ez-Zerka.  Some  forty  minutes  north  of  Cesaraea  is 
the  longer  river  Zerka,  a  deep  and  permanent  stream,  though 
not  large,  with  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  bridge  higher  up.^ 

Connected  with  this  river,  there  is  a  popular  tradition  tliat 
it  is  inhabited  by  crocodiles;  and  the  natives  sometimes 
still  call  it  Maat  Temsah, '  crocodile  water.'  Strabo  speaks  of 
the  name  of  a  former  town  Crocodilon,  between  'Akka  and 
Cesaraea  ;  Pliny  has  the  same,  and  gives  the  name  likewise 
to  a  river.* .  The  tradition  first  appears  in  the  time  of  the 

1  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  I.  p.  492.  Biblical  Researches,  XL  p.  305  I  III. 
p.  232]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  528  [III.  p.  469].  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  II. 
p.  250.  Porter's  Handbook,  p.  3C8.  All  these  have  the  name  Nahr  Belka. 
Wildenbruch  has  JSfahr  Tantura,  Monatsb.  der  Ges.  fiirErdk.,  1844,  p.  232.  Po- 
cocke  has  Nahr  Kurdjeh,  II.  p.  58. 

8  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  528  [III.  p.  469].   Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  II. 
p.  250.   Porter's  Handbook,  p.  368.   Prokesch,  p.  28. 
4  Strabo.  16.  2.  27,  p.  758.   Plin.  Nat.  Hist.,  5.  17. 


192 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


crusades ;  and  is  also  mentioned  by  travellers  down  to  the 
present  time.  There  is  much  strong  assertion  ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  person,  whether  native  or  foreigner,  has 
ever  himself  actuall}'"  seen  a  living  crocodile  in  this  region.^ 

The  Nalir  ez-Zerka  seems  to  be,  without  much  question, 
the  stream  Shihor-Libnath  of  Scripture,  on  the  southern 
border  of  the  tribe  of  Asher.^  The  town  of  Dor  (Tantura), 
which  was  assigned  to  Manasseh,  lay  within  the  territory  of 
Asher;3  and  the  river  Zerka  would  be  the  natural  southern 
boundary  in  that  quarter.  This  is  the  only  stream  south  of 
Carmcl  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

Nahr  el-Akhdar.  About  one  hour  south  of  Cesaraea  the 
unimportant  stream  el-Akhdar  enters  the  sea. 

All  the  streams  thus  far  are  enlarged  in  winter  by  torrents 
from  the  southwestern  slopes  of  Carmel. 

Nahr  Abu  Zaburah.  This  is  a  permanent  stream  running 
to  the  sea  nearly  three  hours  south  of  Cesaraea.  Just  north 
of  its  mouth  is  a  littl-e  bay  or  port,  called  Mma  Abu  Zabu- 
rah. This  river,  the  permanent  sources  of  which  are  in  the 
plain,  serves  in  winter  as* the  drain  of  various  Wadys  from 
the  southern  part  of  Carmcl,  and  likewise  for  Wady  Abu  N^r 
coming  from  the  plain  of  Dothan ;  if  not  also,  perhaps,  for 
Wady  Mussin  and  Wady  Sha'ir.*  Recent  maps,  however, 
make  the  two  latter  run  to  the  Failak. 

Nahr  Arsuf  or  Nahr  el-Failak.  This  stream  is  midway 
between  Cesaraea  and  Joppa  ;  and  is  fed  by  several  marshes 
and  ponds  along  the  plain  near  the  sea,  full  of  gigantic 

1  Vinisauf  in  Bohn's  Chronicles  of  the  Crusaders,  p.  230.  Pocockc,  IL  i.  p.  58. 
See  other  historical  notices  in  Toblcr  Drittc  "Wanderung,  pp.  375-378. 

2  Josh.  xix.  26.  3  Josh.  xvii.  11. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  528  [IH.  p.  4G9].  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp. 
121,  125,  126.  See  above,  pp.  107-109.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  H.  pp.  255, 259. 


RIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


193 


reeds  and  rushes.  These  ponds  swarm  with  leeches  ;  which 
are  collected  bj  persons  who  wade  in  and  let  them  adhere 
to  their  bare  legs.  In  autumn  no  stream  reaches  the  sea. 
The  earlier  name,  Nahr  Arsuf,  so  called  from  the  village 
near  its  mouth,  has  been  supplanted  on  more  recent  maps 
by  that  of  Nahr  el-Fail ak,  from  a  small  village  near  one  of 
the  ponds.  The  position  of  Arsuf  coincides  with  the  site  of 
ancient  Apollonia,  twenty-two  Roman  miles  from  Cesaraea, 
as  given  in  the  Peutinger  Tables.^  According  to  the  recent 
maps,  this  stream,  in  winter,  receives  also  the  waters  drained 
from  the  district  between  Sanur  and  Nabulus. 

Nahr  el-Aiijeh.  The  'Aujeh,  though  short,  is  the  longest 
permanent  river  in  Palestine,  next  to  the  Jordan.  In  winter 
it  receives  the  waters  brought  down  from  the  mountains  by 
the  numerous  Wadys  which  descend  between  'Azzun  and 
Saris.2  This  river  is  also  spoken  of  as  Nahr  Budrus  or 
Butrus  (Peter),  as  receiving  the  great  Wady  from  Ludd, 
which  is  sometimes  called  by  that  name. 

The  proper  source  of  the  'Aujeh  is  at  a  place  called  Has 
el-'Ain,  at  the  base  of  the  hills  a  little  northwest  from  Mej- 
del  Yaba,  and  about  eight  or  nine  miles  distant  from  the 
sea.  Here,  on  a  low  mound,  is  a  ruined  modern  fortress,  in 
the  form  of  a  parallelogram.  At  the  foot  of  the  mound,  in 
the  west,  are  the  immense  fountains  constituting  the  source 
of  the  river  'Aujeh.    They  form  a  marshy  tract,  covered 

1  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  XL  p.  254.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  II.  pp. 
267,  2C8.  Wildenbmch  in  Monatsb.  der  Ges.  fur  Erdk.,  1844,  p.  232.  Porter's 
Handbook,  pp.  364,  365.  There  is  some  confusion  in  recent  maps  and  books,  in 
consequence  of  the  positive  assertion  of  Wildcnbruch  that  Arsuf  lies  further 
south,  and  is  only  a  quarter  of  an  hour  north  of  el-Haram.  But  this  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  express  testimony  of  Wilson,  Thomson,  and  Porter;  as  also  by  the 
position  of  Apollonia,  with  the  site  of  which  Arsuf  has  long  been  identified. 

2  See  these  valleys  described  above,  pp.  109-112. 

25 


194 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


with  reeds  and  rushes.  These  and  other  fountains  below 
furnish,  in  summer,  the  whole  supply  of  water  for  the  river  ; 
which  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Jordan  at  J ericho.  The  water 
has  a  bluish  tinge  ;  the  stream  is  dark,  deep,  and  usually 
sluggish ;  and  is  hardly  to  be  forded  at  any  place.  The 
river  sweeps  off  about  W.  N.  W.  until  it  reaches  the  hills  or 
higher  plateau,  between  the  inner  plain  and  that  along  the 
shore.  Just  here  are  several  mills,  a  mile  from  the  source. 
The  stream  then  passes  on  about  W.  by  S.  under  steep 
banks  formed  by  low  cliffs,  to  the  sea.  About  two  miles 
from  the  mouth  is  an  old  bridge,  on  the  great  road  from 
Yafa  along  the  coast.^  Xo  allusion  to  the  'Aujeh  is  found 
in  Scripture.  Its  permanent  sources  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  Kishon  and  Belus. 

Streams  South  of  Ydfa.  No  permanent  stream  enters  the 
sea  from  the  Sephela,  a  great  plain  south  of  Yafa.  The  Nahr 
Rubin,  which  has  already  been  described  as  the  estuary  of 
the  great  Wady  es-Siirar,^  runs  northwest  by  Yebna  (^Jabneli) 
to  the  sea  ;  but  in  autumn  it  sometimes  dries  up.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1817,  Irby  and  Mangles  crossed  it  near  the  ruins  of  a 
Roman  bridge  west  of  Yebna  ;  it  was  then  nearly  dry  above, 
but  had  a  handsome  sheet  of  water  below.  In  November 
1857,  Tobler  found  no  trace  of  water. ^  The  case  appears  to 
be  similar  with  the  estuary  of  Wady  Simsim,  near  'Askuliin. 
Tbe  river  or  torrent  of  Egypt^  which  drains  the  interior  of 
the  southern  desert,  now  Wady  el-'Arish,  has  no  permanent 
stream  ;  and  has  already  been  described.* 

Indeed,  strictly  speaking,  none  of  the  Wadys  and  water- 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  140.   Porter's  Handbook,  p.  364. 

2  See  above,  p.  113. 

3  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  p.  57.   Tobler  Dritte  Wanderung,  pp.  20,  24,  25. 
*  See  above,  p.  123. 


KIVERS  ALONG  THE  COAST. 


193 


courses  south  of  the  'Aujeli,  require  any  mention  here  under 
the  head  of  Rivers  ;  inasmuch  as  none  of  them  have  peren- 
nial waters.  Yet,  as  they  are  usually  marked  upon  the 
maps  with  all  the  fulness  and  distinctness  of  permanent 
streams,  this  explanation  is  not  inappropriate. 


196 


Pm^SICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


SECTION  II 

LAKES. 

Of  the  four  lakes  of  Palestine,' the  northernmost,  Phiala, 
was  long  accounted  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan.  Two 
others,  the  lake  of  the  Huleh  and  that  of  Tiberias,  are  merely 
expansions  of  the  waters  of  the  Jordan.  The  fourth,  the 
Dead  Sea,  is  the  recipient  of  the  waters  of  that  river,  as  also 
of  the  Arnon  and  other  streams  from  the  eastern  mountains. 
The  Phiala  is  the  smallest  of  the  four,  and  the  Dead  Sea  the 
largest ;  the  relative  magnitude  of  the  four  lakes  increasing 
from  north  to  south  in  the  order  in  which  they  lie. 

I.  PHIALA. 

The  little  lake  Phiala^  now  called  Birket  er-Ram,  is  on 
the  mountain,  nearly  east  by  south  from  Banias,  and  two 
hours  distant  from  that  place.  Its  elevation  above  the  Med- 
iterranean is  given  by  Roth  at  about  three  thousand  three 
hundred  feet,  or  some  two  thousand  six  hundred  feet  above 
the  valley  below. ^ 

The  lake  is  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  bowl,  apparently  an 
extinct  crater ;  not  less  than  from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  tract.  The 
form  is  an  irregular  circle  ;  the  diameter  of  the  water  being 

1  Petermann's  Geograph.  MittheiL,  1859,  p.  290.   See  above,  p.  75. 


PHIALA. 


197 


a  mile,  and  perhaps  more.  The  tract  around  is  high  table- 
laud,  rising  on  the  south  of  the  basin  almost  at  once  into 
wooded  or  bushy  hills  ;  and  skirted  at  some  distance  on  the 
east  likewise  by  a  wooded  range.  The  declivities  of  the 
basin  itself,  consisting  mostly  of  ancient  lava,  are  dreary  and 
desolate,  with  only  an  occasional  shrub  and  a  few  patches  of 
tillage  ;  but  the  country  round  about,  though  not  fertile,  is 
more  cultivated. 

The  lake  has  no  outlet  nor  inlet,  and  is  not  deep.  The 
water,  which  is  stagnant  and  impure,  looks  and  feels  slimy. 
As  we  saw  the  lake,  late  in  May,  1852,  it  was  muddy  for  a 
few  feet  just  at  the  margin;  and  did  not  seem  to  be  clear 
and  pure  in  any  part.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  shore 
was  a  broad  belt  of  water-plants,  already  turned  brown,  and 
in  some  places  resembling  islands.  The  middle  of  the  lake 
was  free.  Wild  ducks  were  swimming  in  different  parts.  A 
large  hawk  was  sailing  above  them,  and  occasionally  swoop- 
ing down  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  if  to  seize  a  duck 
or  a  frog.  Myriads  and  myriads  of  frogs  lined  the  shores ; 
and  it  was  amusing  to  see  them  perched  thickly  along  the 
stones,  as  if  drawn  up  in  battle  array  to  keep  off  intruders. 
It  is  the  very  paradise  of  frogs.  The  lake  supplies  the  whole 
country  with  leeches  ;  here  too  they  are  gathered  by  men 
wading  in  and  letting  the  leeches  fasten  themselves  upon 
their  legs.  The  ground  along  the  margin  is  mostly  without 
reeds  or  rushes ;  and  is  covered  with  small  black  volcanic 
stones.  The  shores  and  sides  of  the  crater  exhibit  every- 
where small  glistening  black  crystals,  resembling  hornblende.^ 

According  to  Josephus,  the  Phiala,  so  called  from  its  bowl- 
like form,  was  situated  on  the  road  leading  over  the  moun- 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  399, 400.  Anderson's  Geological  Report,  p.  110. 


198  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

tain  from  Cesaraea  Philippi  (Banias)  to  Traclionitis,  and  not 
far  distant  from  tliat  road  upon  the  rigid.  Tliis  description 
at  once  identifies  the  Phiala  with  the  present  Birket  er-Ram, 
since  there  is  no  other  body  of  water  whatever  on  the  right 
of  that  road.  The  position,  too,  was  such, that  popular  be- 
lief regarded  the  Phiala  as  the  true  source  of  the  great  foun- 
tain at  Banias,  and  Josephus  relates,  that  the  tetrarcli  Philip 
once  caused  chaff  to  be  thrown  into  the  Phiala,  which  was 
carried  down  and  found  at  Paneum.^  This  story  helps  to 
confirm  the  identity  of  Phiala  with  Birket  er-Ram ;  but  the 
supply  of  such  a  fountain  as  that  of  JBanias  would  exhaust 
this  lake  in  a  single  day.  Nor  can  the  bright,  limpid,  spark- 
ling waters  of  that  fountain  be  supposed  to  have  any  connec- 
tion with  the  dark,  stagnant,  slimy  fluid  which  fills  the, lake. 

Seetzen  heard  of  the  lake,  but  did  not  visit  it.  Irby  and 
Mangles  were  the  first  to  examine  it,  in  passing  from  Damas- 
cus to  Banias,  in  I8I8.2 

n.   LAKE  OF  THE  HULEH. 

This  lake  occupies  the  southern  and  lowest  part  of  the 
basin  of  the  Hulch  already  described.  The  nature  of  the 
country  around  imparts  to  it  a  triangular  form,  the  apex  be- 
ing towards  the  south,  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  it.  The 
eastern  side  lies  along  near  the  eastern  mountain  and  paral- 
lel to  it,  while  the  western  side  runs  off  in  a  northwesterly 
direction,  skirted  by  a  plain  somewhat  higher  than  the  lake. 
The  northern  side  is  bordered  by  an  extensive  marsh,  stretch- 
ing in  some  parts  quite  across  the  whole  valley,  and  covered 
with  gigantic  reeds  and  canes,  through  which  the  waters  of 
the  upper  Jordan  lazily  find  their  way.    The  length  of  the 

1  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  7.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  400. 

2  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  pp.  334,  335.   Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  87. 


LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 


199 


lake  itself  from  north  to  south  is  some  four  or  five  miles ; 
its  breadth  is  from  three  to  four  miles.  The  marsh  extends 
up  northward  five  or  six  miles,  after  which  succeeds  the 
fertile  meadow-like  tract  already  described,  in  which  is  the 
junction  of  the  streams  of  the  Jordan.^  The  lake  does  not 
appear  to  be  deep.  It  has  never  been  sounded,  and  no  boat, 
apparently,  has  ever  floated  upon  its  waters.  The  elevation 
of  the  lake,  according  to  Wildenbruch,  does  not  vary  much 
from  one  hundred  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.^ 

This  lake  is  known  in  Scripture  as  the  Waters  of  Merom, 
near  which  Joshua  overthrew  the  hosts  of  Jabin  king  of  Ha- 
zor.^  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  but  is  the 
lake  Semechonitis  of  Josephus,  over  which  the  city  of  Hazor 
was  situated.* 

III.   LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 

The  lake  of  Tiberias,  now  Bahr  Tubariyeh,  is  the  second 
basin  of  the  Jordan,  in  which  the  waters  of  that  river  spread 
themselves  out,  after  rushing  down  the  narrow  basaltic  chasm 
below  the  lake  of  the  Huleh.  This  lower  lake  is  an  irregular 
oval,  being  broadest  in  the  middle,  and  wider  at  the  north- 
ern end  than  at  the  southern.  The  length  is  nearest  thirteen 
miles,  by  a  breadth  of  about  six  miles  across  the  middle. 
The  lake  is  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean, 
but  the  measurements,  as  yet,  with  one  exception,  have  been 
made  with  the  barometer,  and  the  results  are  quite  various. 
According  to  Lynch,  the  depression  amounts  to  nearest  six 
hundred  and  fifty  feet ;  the  mean  obtained  by  seven  different 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  361,  370.  Porter's  Handbook,  p.  435.  See 
above,  pp.  76,  152,  153. 

2  Berliner  Monatsber.,111.,  1845,  p.  271. 

3  Josh.  xi.  5,  7. 

<  Joseph.  Antiq.,  5.  5.  1.   Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  8.   Ibid.,  4.  1.  1. 


200 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


observers  being  six  hundred  and  sixty  feet.^  Taking  the  first 
as  a  round  number,  this  lake  is  some  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  lower  than  that  of  the  Huleh.  Lynch  sounded  and 
found  the  greatest  depth  to  be  one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
feet,  the  bottom  being  a  concave  basin.^  But  the  quantity 
of  water  in  the  lake  varies  at  difierent  seasons.  The  rains 
and  melting  snows  from  Lebanon  and  the  adjacent  hills  cause 
it  to  rise  in  winter  and  spring  three  or  four  feet  above  its 
ordinary  level,  and  it  sometimes  overflows  the  courtyards  of 
the  houses  along  its  shore  in  Tiberias.  These  superabun- 
dant waters  being  thus  spread  out,  first  over  the  surface  of 
the  upper  lake,  and  then  over  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  all  great 
or  violent  inundations  of  the  Jordan,  as  we  have  seen,  are 
thereby  prevented.  The  story  told  by  some  travellers,  that 
the  Jordan  holds  on  its  way  through  the  middle  of  the  lake, 
without  mingling  its  waters,  is  of  course  nothing  more  than 
a  fable. ^ 

The  water  of  the  lake,  as  Josephus  testifies,  is  sweet  and 
most  potable.*  The  inhabitants  of  Tiberias  have  no  other 
water.  It  is  clear,  sparkling,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste. 
Still,  some  of  our  party  thought  they  perceived  in  it  a  slight 
brackish  taste,  which,  considering  the  very  copious  brackish 
fountains  that  flow  into  it,  is  not  improbable. 

The  lake  is  full  of  fish  of  various  kinds ;  Josephus  says 
that  some  of  the  species  are  peculiar  to  it.  Hasselquist  the 
naturalist,  was  the  first  in  modern  times  to  note  that  some 
of  the  varieties  of  fish  found  here  are  met  with  also  in  the 

^  Lynch  more  exactly,  six  hundred  and  fifty-three  feet.   The  seven  observers 
are:  Lynch,  Russegger,  Schubert,  Bertou,  Symonds,  Wildenbruch,  Allen. 
2  Official  Report,  p.  15.   Biblical  Researches,  LNote,  p.  613. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  3^5,  414  [HI.  pp.  261,  309]. 

*  Aifxyr]  yXvKud  Tf  Zfxats  iarl  Kctl  TroTi/icurdTrj,  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  7. 


LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 


201 


Nile  ;  namely,  Silurus  and  Mugil  (cluib),  and  likewise 
another  whicli  he  names  Spams  Galilaeus,  a  species  of 
bream. ^  We  liad  no  difficulty,  in  1838,  in  procuring  an 
abundant  supply  for  our  evening  and  morning  meal  at  Tibe- 
rias ;  and  found  them  delicate  and  well  flavored.  The  fish- 
ing is  carried  on  only  from  the  shore  with  hand-nets  ;  never 
at  the  present  day  from  a  boat.  The  right  to  fish  is  farmed 
out  by  the  government.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  village  at  'Ain  et-Tabighah,  probably  the 
ancient  Bethsaida  of  Galilee,  still  live  by  fishing.^ 

At  the  present  day  a  single  boat,  and  that  a  sail-boat,  is 
kept  upon  the  lake,  usually  at  Tiberias,  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  wood  from  the  opposite  shore.  Pococke,  in  1738, 
took  a  sail  upon  the  lake  ;  and  there  are  again  notices  of  such 
a  boat  from  1806  onward.  It  appears  to  have  been  often 
renewed.  The  one  which  we  saw  in  1838,  or  its  successor, 
was  hired  by  Lynch,  in  1848  ;  but  was  soon  wrecked  in  the 
rapids  of  the  Jordan.    In  1852,  it  had  been  replaced.^ 

The  shores  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  present,  at  most  seasons, 
few  features  of  beauty  or  grandeur.  The  lake  itself  is  a  fine 
sheet  of  limpid  water,  lying  deep  in  its  depressed  basin,  in 
the  midst  of  higher  tracts  around  it-.  Along  its  whole  east- 
ern side,  the  mountain  wall,  steep,  but  not  precipitous,  rises 
perhaps  a  thousand  feet,  and  then  the  table-land  above 
spreads  off  into  the  great  plain  of  Hauran.  On  the  western 
side  there  is  a  similar  wall  along  the  southern  half  of  the 
lake,  and  the  plain  above  extends  back  to  Mount  Tabor. 

1  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  7.   Hasselquist,  Reise,  pp.  181,  380,  412  sq.,  428  sq. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  318.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  38G  [III.  p.  261]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  38G  [III.  p.  262].  Pococke,  Description  of  the  East^ 
IT.  i.  p.  69.  Lynch,  Official  Report,  pp.  15,  17.  Van  de  Velde,  Narrative,  II. 
p.  399. 

26 


202 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


Then  comes  the  plain  of  Gennesareth  ;  and  further  north 
the  land  rises  gradually  from  the  shore  into  the  tract  of  ir- 
regular broken  table-land  which  intervenes  between  the  two 
lakes.  West  of  this  tract  lie  the  higher  mountains  around 
Safed.  But,  in  general,  the  hills  along  the  lake  are  monot- 
onous and  tame,  with  very  little  of  the  picturesque  in  their 
form,  and  they  are  decked  by  no  shrubs  nor  forests.  In 
early  spring,  indeed,  the  verdure  of  the  grass  and  herbage 
imparts  to  them  a  pleasing  aspect ;  but  at  other  times  they 
are  naked  and  dreary.  Whoever  looks  here  for  the  magnif- 
icence of  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  or  Southern  Germany,  or 
the  softer  beauty  of  those  of  England  and  the  United  States, 
will  be  disappointed.  The  regular  and  almost  unbroken 
heights  which  surround  this  lake,  bear  no  comparison,  as 
to  vivid  and  powerful  effect,  with  the  stern  and  savage  gran- 
deur of  the  mountains  around  the  Dead  Sea.^ 

The  position  of  this  lake,  so  deeply  depressed  in  the  midst 
of  higher  tracts  of  country,  exposes  it,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
to  gusts  of  wind  and  in  winter  to  tempests.  One  such  storm 
is  recorded  during  our  Lord's  ministry;  and  another  instance, 
where  the  wind  was  contrary  and  great But  in  order  to 
account  for  these,  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  any  peculi- 
arly tempestuous  character  of  the  lake  itself;  nor  does  it  ap- 
pear, either  from  the  testimony  of  the  ancients  or  of  the 
present  inhabitants,  that  storms  are  more  frequent  within 
the  basin  than  in  the  region  round  about.^ 

The  volcanic  tract,  through  which  the  Jordan  breaks  its 
way  below  the  Huleh,  extends  down  also  on  both  sides  of  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  380,  416  [TH.  pp.  252,  312]. 

2  Matth.  viii.  23  sq.;  Mark  iv.  35  sq.;  Luke  viii.  22  sq.  Matth.  xiv.  24;  Mark 
vi.  48;  John  vi.  18. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  416  [HI.  p.  312]. 


LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 


203 


lower  lake.  On  the  'Western  side,  the  ground  back  and 
north  of  the  plain  of  Gennesareth  is  thickly  strewed  with 
black  basaltic  stones.  On  some  of  the  hilltops  clusters  of 
similar  rocks  are  so  grouped  together  as  to  present  almost 
the  appearance  of  architectural  ruins.^ 

Historical  Notices.  In  the  New  Testament  this  lake  is 
once  called  the  lake  (Xlfivrf)  of  Gennesaret  ;  oftener,  the  sea 
(^dXaaaa)  of  Galilee  or  of  Tiberias.^  The  Apocrypha  has 
the  water  of  Gennesar  ;  and  Josephus  calls  it  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesar,  or  also  of  Tiberias.^  The  ancient  Hebrew  name  was 
the  sea  (c;:)  of  Chinnereth  or  Chinneroth.  It  is  mentioned 
but  four  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  only  in  reference 
to  boundaries.* 

But  this  want  of  prominence  of  the  lake  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  amply  made  up  in  the  New ;  where  this  fine  sheet 
of  water  is  intimately  interwoven  with  the  life  and  ministry 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He  walked  upon  its  shores  ;  he 
sailed  upon  its  waters ;  his  home  was  at  Capernaum;  and 
in  Capernaum,  Bethsaida,  and  Chorazin,  towns  lying  along 
its  western  shore,  most  of  his  mighty  works  were  done.^ 
However  tame  may  be  the  scenery  of  the  lake,  yet  aided  by 
these  historical  and  hallowed  associations,  it  exerts  upon  the 
Christian  traveller  a  fascination  and  a  charm  to  which  the 
mere  magnificence  of  nature  can  never  aspire. 

The  evangelists  record  three  instances  in  which  our  Lord 
crossed  the  lake  in  a  boat,  with  his  disciples,  to  the  eastern 
shore,  and  afterwards  returned.    The  first  time  was  when 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  342,  347. 

2  Luke  V.  1;  John  vi.  1;  Matth.  iv.  18;  Mark  1.  16;  John  vi.  1;  xxi.  1. 

3  1  Mace.  xi.  67.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  7.  Ibid.,  3.  3.  5. 
*  Num.  xxxiv.  11;  Josh.  xiii.  27;  Deut.  iii.  17;  Josh.  xii.  3. 
«  Matth.  xi.  20-23. 


204 


PPnrSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


he  healed  the  two  demoniacs  of  the  Gadarenes,  having 
stilled  the  tempest  on  the  way ;  to  this  we  have  already 
alluded.i  Again  he  feeds  the  five  thousand  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  the  lake ;  and  sending  back  his  disciples  alone 
with  the  boat,  he  follows  them  walking  on  the  water.^  The 
third  time,  he  fed  the  four  thousand  in  Decapolis,  and  re- 
turned to  Magdala.^  Still  another  time,  he  crossed  the  lake 
to  the  northeast  quarter;  and  then  made  his  way  by  the 
northern  Bethsaida  to  Cesaraea  Philippi  (Banias).^ 

In  those  days  boats  were  frequent  upon  the  lake.  When 
our  Lord  had  fed  the  five  thousand  on  the  northeast  of  the 
lake,  and  his  disciples  had  gone  away  in  the  only  boat,  other 
boats  came  from  Tiberias  nigh  unto  the  place,  so  that  the 
multitude  were  able  to  pass  over  to  Capernaum.^  On  the 
capture  of  Tarichaea,  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake,  by  Vespa- 
sian and  Titus,  great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  escaped  by 
water  and  remained  upon  the  lake,  in  boats  and  small  craft, 
which  they  had  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Vespasian  caused 
boats  to  be  got  ready  in  order  to  pursue  them  upon  the  lake. 
A  naval  fight  took  place,  in  which  the  Jews  and  their  boats 
were  totally  destroyed.^ 

The  fisheries  of  the  lake,  in  ancient  times,  were  more 
extensive  and  productive  than  now.  Four  of  the  apostles, 
Andrew,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  if  not  others,  were  fisher- 
men.   Several  of  our  Lord's  comparisons  and  miracles  were 

1  Mattli.  viii.  23  sq.,  comp.  ix.  1;  Mark  iv.  36  sq.,  comp.  v.  21 ;  Luke  viii.  22  sq., 
comp.  40. 

2  Matth.  xiv.  13  sq.,  comp.  22,  25  ;  Mark  vi.  32  sq.,  comp.  45,  48;  Luke  ix.  10 
sq. ;  John  vi.  1,  comp.  17,  19. 

3  Matth.  XV.  29  sq.,  comp.  39;  Mark  vii.  31  sq.,  comp.  viii.  10. 

*  Mark  viii.  13,  comp.  22,  27.  «  John  yi.  22-24. 

6  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3. 10.  1,  5,  6,  9. 


LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 


205 


connected  with  fishing.^  The  fish  were  caught  usually,  it 
would  seem,  with  drag-nets,  cast  from  boats,  but  sometimes 
with  a  hook.2  So  many  persons  followed  this  business,  that 
two  towns  near  the  lake  received  the  name  of  Bethsaida, 
'  house  of  fishing.'  One,  Bethsaida  of  Galilee,  the  home  of 
Andrew  and  Peter,  was  on  the  west  shore  of  the  lake,  prob- 
ably at  et-Tabigliah,  where  the  poor  inhabitants  still  live  by 
fishing.  The  other  Bethsaida,  called  also  Julias,  was  in 
Gaulonitis,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Jordan,  two  miles 
above  the  lake ;  near  the  foot  of  the  steep  descent  of  the 
river.  It  may  be,  that  the  fish,  attempting  to  ascend  the 
Jordan,  were  here  stopped  by  the  rapids  and  falls,  and  were 
thus  congregated  in  great  numbers  ;  so  that  the  place  be- 
came a  favorite  resort  for  fishermen. 

Hot  Springs.  Having  already  described  the  hot  springs 
connected  with  the  rivers  Hieromax  and  Zerka  Ma'in,  we 
may  here  appropriately  speak  of  those  on  the  shore  of  this 
lake. 

They  are  situated  close  to  the  lake,  about  thirty-five  min- 
utes south  of  Tiberias,  on  a  part  of  the  shore  a  little  ele- 
vated above  the  water.  There  is  an  old  bath-house  in  decay; 
and  a  new  and  splendid  one  begun  in  1833  by  Ibrahim  Pa- 
sha of  Egypt  ;  but  no  ancient  remains  are  found.  There  are 
four  fountains  at  intervals  of  a  few  paces  from  each  other. 
A  covered  channel  now  runs  along  before  them  all,  conduct- 
ing the  water  into  a  common  reservoir ;  so  that  compara- 
tively very  little  rises  to  the  surface  and  runs  directly  into 
the  lake.  The  water  as  it  oozes  from  the  ground,  is  too  hot 
to  bear  the  hand  in  it,  the  temperature  being  144°  Far. 

1  Mattli.  iv,  19  and  Luke  v.  10;  Matth.  xiii.  47;  Matth.  iv.  18  sq.  and  Luke  v. 
1  sq.;  Matth.  xvii.  27;  John  xxi.  1-7. 

2  Luko  V.  4-6;  John  xxi.  C;  Matth.  xvii.  27. 


206 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


The  taste  is  excessively  salt  and  bitter, like  heated  sea-water; 
there  is  also  a  strong  smell  of  sulphur,  but  no  taste  of  it. 
The  water  deposits  a  sediment,  as  it  runs  down  to  the  lake, 
which  differs  in  color  below  the  different  springs,  being  in 
one  white,  in  another  greenish,  in  a  third  reddish  yellow,  etc. 
The  water  is  iinpregnated  with  various  salts  ;  the  chief  of 
which  is  chloride  of  sodium}  These  baths  are  regarded  as 
efficacious  in  rheumatic  complaints  and  in  cases  of  debility ; 
and  are  visited,  chiefly  in  July,  by  people  from  all  parts  of 
Syria.2 

These  hot  springs  are  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and  not  nn- 
frequently  by  Josephus  and  in  the  Talmud.  Josephus  calls 
the  place  Ammaus,  signifying  '  warm  baths ; '  so  that  this 
name  would  seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  Greek  form  for 
the  Hebrew  Hainmath,  which  has  the  same  meaning,  and 
was  the  name  of  a  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Naphthali.^ 

IV.   THE  DEAD  SEA. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  the  third  and  largest  basin,  into  which 
the  Jordan  discharges  its  waters.  The  lake  has  no  outlet ; 
and  the  accumulation  of  the  waters  in  it,  is  counteracted 
only  by  strong  evaporation.  Its  deep  position  and  physical 
phenomena  render  it  the  most  remarkable  body  of  water  in 
the  known  world. 

Name.  The  earliest  Hebrew  name  is  the  Salt  Sea  (rib^r\  n^) ; 
then  also,  the  sea  of  the  Arab  ah  (desert)  ;  and  sometimes 
both  names  are  used  together.^    In  the  prophets  it  is  also 

1  For  analyses  of  these  waters,  see  Anderson's  Geological  Report  (in  Lynch), 
p.  202. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  383-385  [III.  pp.  258-260]. 

3  Plin.  Nat.  Hist.,  5.  15.  Joseph.  Antiq.,  18.  2.  3.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  1.  3.  Lightfoot, 
Opera,  II.  pp.  224,  225.   Hammath,  Josh.  xix.  35. 

4  Salt  Sea,  Gen.  xlv.  3;  Num.  xxxiv.  3,  12;  Josh.  xv.  2,  5,  xviii.  19.    Sea  of 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


207 


spoken  of  as  the  Eastern  Sea}  It  is  mostly  referred  to  as  a 
boundary  or  limit. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  no  allusion  to  the  Dead 
Sea.  Josephus  and  Galen  call  it  Asphaltites,  '  the  asphaltic 
lake  ; '  and  the  latter,  as  likewise  Eusebius  and  other  Greek 
writers  speak  of  it  also  as  the  Dead  Sea?  The  Arabs  call  it 
Bahr  Lut,  '  Sea  of  Lot.' 

Form  and  Extent.  The  Dead  Sea  occupies  the  lowest  and 
deepest  portion  of  the  Gh6r,  the  deep  valley  or which 
extends  from  Mount  Hermon  to  the  Red  Sea.  This  great 
cha^m,  for  most  of  its  length,  —  that  is  to  say,  from  about 
Lat.  33°  to  Lat.  30°,  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  geographical 
miles,  —  is  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Dead  Sea  lies  about  midway  of  this  whole  line  of  de- 
pression ;  of  which  it  occupies  somewhat  less  than  one  fourth 
part. 

The  mountains  enclosing  the  Ghor  recede  somewhat  near 
Jericho ;  but  at  the  north  end  of  the  sea  they  resume  their  usual 
course,  and  are  parallel  along  its  whole  length  ;  so  the  breadth 
of  the  lake  is  quite  uniform,  filling  the  whole  interval  from 
mountain  to  mountain.  Its  two  ends  are  somewhat  rounded. 
At  the  northwestern  quarter,  the  shore  north  of  Ras  el-Fesh- 
khah  tends  more  to  the  northeast,  contracting  this  portion 
of  the  lake,  and  leaving  a  tract  of  plain  between  it  and  the 
mountains.  At  the  southwest  quarter  a  like  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  the  salt  mountain,  which  runs  S.  S.  E.  and  also 

the'Arabah,  Deut.  iv.  49;  2  Kings  xiv.  25;  comp.  p.  74.  Both,  Deut.  iii.  17; 
Josh.  iii.  16,  xii.  3. 

1  Ezek.  xlvii.  18;  Joel  ii.  20;  Zech.  xiv.  8. 

2  \ifjLV7i  'A(r(paKT7Tis,  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3. 10.  7.  Ibid.,  4.  7.  5.  Galen  de  Simpl. 
Med.  Fac,  4.  20.  Pausan.  5.  7.  3;  comp.  Eeland,  p.  241  sq.  QdXaaaa  veKpd, 
Galen  de  Simpl.  Med.  Fac.,  4.  20.  Eusebius,  Onomast.,  Article  Mare  Salinarum  ; 
where  Jerome,  '  Mare  Mortuum.* 


208 


PHYSICAL  GEOGR.VPHT  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


contracts  that  end  of  the  lake.  In  the  southern  portion  of 
the  kike,  a  long  low  peninsula  connected  by  a  broad  isthmus 
with  the  eastern  shore  occupies  for  some  distance  two  thirds 
of  the  breadth  of  the  lake.  The  body  of  water  south  of  the 
peninsula  is  often  spoken  of  as  '  the  South  Bay ; '  it  is  nearly 
round,  and  comparatively  shallow. 

The  length  of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  fixed  by  Lynch  and  his  par- 
ty, is  forty  geographical  miles ;  the  breadth  being  from  nine 
to  nine  and  three  fourths  geographical  miles.^  Our  own  ob- 
servations in  1838  had  given  the  length  at  thirty-nine  geo- 
graphical miles  and  the  general  breadth  at  nine  geographical 
miles.  The  shore  at  the  southern  end  is  almost  a  dead  flat, 
and  a  slight  rise  in  the  lake  would  cause  the  water  to  extend 
up  two  or  three  miles  further  south,  and  thus  increase 
the  length.  There  are  various  indications,  that  in  1848  the 
water  of  the  lake  was  higher  and  extended  further  south, 
tlian  when  we  saw  it  in  1838.^ 

Depth  and  Depression.  The  careful  soundings  of  the 
United  States'  Expedition  under  Lieut.  Lynch  have  settled 
the  question  of  depth.  The  bottom  of  the  lake,  along  the 
middle,  was  found  to  be  a  deep  valley  or  plain,  extending 
from  the  northern  part  to  near  the  peninsula.  The  average 
depth  of  this  valley  is  not  far  from  one  hundred  and  eighty 
fathoms,  or  one  thousand  and  eiglity  feet ;  while  at  one  point, 
on  a  line  between  'Ain  Terabeh  and  the  mouth  of  the  Zerka 
Ma'in,  they  found  the  greatest  depth  ;  namely,  two  hundred 
and  eighteen  fathoms,  or  one  thousand  three  hundred  and 
eight  feet  Molyneux,  a  year  earlier,  reported  one  sounding 
of  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  fathoms,  or  one  thousanc"' 

1  Biblical  Researches  (2d  ed.),  L  p.  612,  Note.  Comp.  Lynch,  Official  Report, 
p.  68. 

2  BibUcal  Researches,  I.  pp.  509,  515  [H.  pp.  217,  225]. 


THE  DE.VD  SE.V. 


209 


tliree  liuiidrcd  and  fifty  feet.  In  the  bay,  south  of  the  pe- 
ninsula, the  depth  was  nowhere  over  two  fathoms,  or  twelve 
feet.i 

It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  level  of  the  lake 
varies  considerably  at  different  seasons.  Traces  of  the  high- 
water  mark  are  visible  in  many  places  ;  which  show  that 
at  some  seasons  the  level  of  the  sea  is  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
higher  than  at  others.  This  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the 
vast  quantity  of  water  brought  into  it  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, not  only  by  the  Jordan  from  the  north,  but,  also,  from 
the  deserts  in  the  south,  and  from  the  mountains  along  its 
sides.  The  quantity  of  rain  which  falls  in  Palestine  varies 
greatly  in  different  years ;  and  the  Dead  Sea  becoming  in 
proportion  more  or  less  full,  is  subjected  in  a  course  of  years 
to  great  variations.- 

After  the  depth  of  the  sea  and  the  character  of  its  shores 
had  been  thus  determined,  Lieut.  Dale,  the  engineer  of  the 
Expedition  (whose  grave  is  atBeiriit),  carried  a  level  from 
the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  at  'Ain  Terabeh  across  the  moun- 
tains, by  way  of  Jerusalem,  to  the  shore  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, at  Yafa.  This  level  gave  1316.7  feet,  as  the  depression 
of  the  Dead  Sea  below  the  Mediterranean.  The  following 
are  other  results  :  ^ 

Engl.  Feet. 

Depression  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1316.7 

Pass  back  of 'Ain  Terabeh,  above  Dead  Sea,       .       .  1305.75 
Elevation  of  Jerusalem  above  the  Mediteiranean,        .  2610.5 
Elevation  of  Jerusalem  above  Dead  Sea,     .       .       .  3927.24 
Depth  of  Dead  Sea,     .       .    1308. 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  43,  Section  and  Map.   Biblical  Researches  (2d  ed.), 

I.  p.  612,  Note.    See  above,  p.  170. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  515  [II.  p.  225].   Pococke,  Description  of  the  East, 

II.  i.  p.  35.   Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  140. 

3  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  43.   Biblical  Researches  (2d  ed.),  I.  p.  612, Note. 

27 


210  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 

It  is  a  singular  coincidence  that  the  depth  and  depression 
of  the  sea,  according  to  these  figures,  are  very  nearly  equal ; 
each  some  thirteen  hundred  feet ;  and  that  the  elevation  of 
Jerusalem  above  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Dead  Sea  is,  in 
each  case,  nearly  a  multiple  of  the  same  number. 

The  extraordinary  anomaly  of  so  enormous  a  depression 
of  the  Dead  Sea  appears  never  to  have  been  suspected  until 
the  year  1837.  In  that  year  Moore  and  Beke  made  some  im- 
perfect experiments,  as  they  had  done  elsewhere,  by  means 
of  the  boiling  point  of  water  ;  from  which  they  inferred  a  de- 
pression of  about  five  hundred  feet.  Schubert,  the  same  year, 
made  it  598.5  Paris,  or  about  six  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
English  feet,  by  the  barometer.  Russegger  and  Burton,  in 
1838,  first  made  the  depression  amount  to  more  than  thirteen 
hundred  Paris  feet.  In  1841,  Lieut.  Symonds,  by  trigono- 
metrical observations,  obtained  the  result  of  1312.2  English 
feet ;  a  very  close  coincidence  witli  the  results  of  the  level 
run  by  Lieut.  Dale.^ 

View  from  the  Western  Cliffs.  The  traveller,  in  passing 
down  from  Hebron  or  Carmel  to  the  brow  of  the  cliffs  above 
the  Dead  Sea,  makes  a  descent  equal  to  that  between  Hebron 
and  the  Mediterranean.  This  eastern  slope  is  irregular  and 
broken  up  by  ridges  and  deep  chasms  running  towards  the 
lake.  The  descent  is  constant,  and  often  very  rapid.  The 
way  is  long,  desert,  and  dreary.  After  five  or  six  hours,  the 
traveller  begins  to  look  out  for  some  glimpse  of  the  sea  ;  and 
expects  soon  to  arrive  at  the  shore  nearly  upon  a  level  with 
its  waters.  But  he  is  doomed  to  repeated  disappointment ; 
and  it  is  only  after  seven  hours  of  travel  from  Carmel,  that 
he  reaches  the  brow  of  a  pass,  and  turning  aside  a  few  steps 
to  what  seems  a  small  knoll  on  the  right,  he  unexpectedly 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  513  [H.  p.  222] .  Also  BibUcal  Researches  (2(1  ed.), 
I.  p.  612,  Note. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


211 


finds  himself  on  the  summit  of  a  perpendicular  cliff,  over- 
hanging 'Ain  Jidy  and  the  sea,  at  least  fifteen  hundred  feet 
above  its  waters.  The  Dead  Sea  lies  below  him  in  its  vast, 
deep  chasm,  shut  in  on  both  sides  by  ranges  of  precipitous 
mountains ;  their  bases  sometimes  jutting  out  into  the  water, 
and  again  retreating  so  as  to  leave  a  narrow  strip  of  shore 
below.  The  view  includes  the  whole  of  the  Dead  Sea,  with 
the  exception  of  the  northern  extremity,  which  is  shut  out 
by  the  adjacent  higher  and  more  projecting  cliff  el-Mersed»i 

What  struck  us  particularly  in  this  view  in  1838,  was 
the  belt  of  gravelly  or  pebbly  shore  which  seemed  to  sur- 
round tlie  lake,  interrupted  by  many  shoal-like  points  or 
deltas,  which  run  out  into  the  southern  part,  appearing  at 
first  sight  like  flat  sand-banks  or  islands.  The  whole  seemed 
more  like  a  long,  winding  bay,  or  the  estuary  of  a  large 
river,  when  the  tide  is  out,  and  the  shores  and  shoals  left 
dry.  Indeed,  there  are  various  reasons  to  suppose  that  the 
level  of  the  sea,  as  we  saw  it  in  1838,  was  several  feet  lower 
than  when  visited  by  the  United  States'  Expedition  ten  years 
later. 

The  peninsula  is  of  course  a  prominent  feature,  and  is  seen 
in  its  whole  form  and  extent.  The  strait  between  it  and  the 
western  shore  is  so  narrow,  that  from  this  point  of  view  the 
southern  end  of  the  peninsula  is  seen  across  one  of  the  larger 
spits  or  deltas  above  mentioned.  Among  the  western  moun- 
tains is  seen  the  bold,  projecting  cliff  of  Sebbeh  (Masada)  ; 
and  further  on  also  the  whole  of  Jebel  Usdum  or  the  Salt 
mountain.  On  the  east  are  the  mountains  of  Moab,  spring- 
ing from  the  water  and  shore  in  perpendicular  cliffs,  and 
rising  above  and  back  of  these  in  far  steeper  and  loftier 
masses  than  the  mountains  on  the  western  coast.  Across 

1  Comp.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  501-503  [11.  pp.  205-207]. 


212 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAJ^D. 


the  isthmus  of  the  low  peninsula,  towards  the  southeast,  one 
looks  up  along  a  deep,  straight  ravine,  at  the  head  of  which 
Kerak  with  its  castle  is  visible,  situated  on  a  high,  precipi- 
tous rock,  far  up  near  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  Oppo- 
site 'Ain  Jidy  is  the  wild  chasm  and  mouth  of  the  Mojib 
(Arnon)  ;  and  further  north  is  seen  Wady  ez-Zerka  Ma'in. 

Character  of  the  Waters.  The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  has 
a  slightly  greenish  hue,  and  is  not  entirely  transparent ;  but 
objects  seen  through  it  appear  as  if  seen  through  oil.  It  is 
most  intensely  and  intolerably  salt ;  far  more  so  than  sea- 
water  ;  and  leaves  behind  a  nauseous,  bitter  taste,  not  unlike 
Glauber's  salts.  The  specific  gravity  is  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  water  known.  Both  these  qualities  of  taste  and 
weight,  arise  from  the  heavy  solution  of  various  salts  con- 
tained in  the  water,  chiefly  those  of  magnesia  and  soda. 
But  the  amount  and  proportions  of  these  salts,  and  of  course 
the  specific  gravity,  are  found  to  vary  somewhat  in  different 
parts  of  the  sea,  and  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  A 
portion  of  water  taken  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan 
might  be  expected  to  be  less  strongly  saturated  than  another 
from  near  the  middle  of  the  lake ;  and  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, when  the  sea  is  filled  and  its  level  raised  several  feet, 
its  waters  are  naturally  more  diluted  than  in  autumn,  after 
having  been  for  months  subjected  to  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion under  a  burning  sun  in  this  deep  caldron. 

The  following  four  analyses  of  the  water  are  among  the 
most  recent :  the  first  by  Prof.  C.  G.  Gmelin  of  Tiibingen, 
1826  ;  the  second  by  Dr.  Apjohn  of  Dublin,  1839  ;  the  third 
by  Prof.  James  C.  Booth  of  Philadelphia,  1848  ;  and  the 
fourth  by  Messrs.  Thornton  and  Herapath  of  Edinburgh, 
1849.  The  point  whence  the  water  for  the  first  analysis  was 
obtained,  is  not  specified.    That  analyzed  by  Dr.  Apjohn  was 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


213 


taken  half  a  mile  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  near  the 
close  of  the  rainy  season  ;  and  naturally  exhibits  a  less 
amount  of  salts,  and  a  less  specific  gravity.^  The  standard 
of  comparison  for  the  specific  gravity  is  distilled  water  at 
1000. 


Specific  gravity 

Chloride  of  calcium 
"      of  magnesium 

Bromide  of  magnesium 

Chloride  of  potassium 
"      of  sodium  . 
"      of  manganese 
"       of  aluminum 
"       of  ammonium 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Water 


PROP.  GMELIN. 

1212 


3.2141 
11.7734 
0.4393 
1.6738 
7.0777 
0.2117 
0.0896 
0.0075 
0.0527 

24.5398 
75.4602 


100. 


DR.  APJOHN. 

1153 

2.438 
9.370 
0.201 
0.852 
9.830 
0.005 


0.075 

18.780 
81.320 

100. 


Boiling  point. 
221°  F. 


The  water  analyzed  by  Prof.  Booth  was  drawn  up  by  Lieut. 
Lynch  from  a  depth  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  fathoms, 
or  eleven  hundred  and  ten  feet,  and  shows  a  greater  amount 
of  salts  and  a  greater  specific  gravity  than  any  otlier.^ 


Specific  gravity  at  60° 

Chloride  of  magnesium 
"      of  calcium 
"      of  sodium 
**      of  potassium 

Bromide  of  potassium 

Sulphate  of  lime 


PROF.  BOOTH. 


227.42 


Water 


145.8971 
31.0746 
78.5537 
6.5860 
1.3741 
0.7012 
264.1867 
735.8133 


1000. 


1  See  other  earlier  analyses,  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  514  [II.  p.  224]. 

2  Lynch,  Official  Report,  pp.  73,  204. 


214 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


The  water  for  the  fourth  analysis  was  taken  from  the 
northwestern  shore,  about  half  a  mile  west  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan,  in  the  month  of  March,  1849.  This  analysis, 
therefore,  might  be  expected  to  compare  most  nearly  with 
that  of  Dr.  Apjohn. 


Specific  gravity  . 

Chloride  of  calcium  . 

"  of  magnesium 
Bromide  of  magnesium 
Chloride  of  sodium 

'*       of  potassium  . 

"       of  ammonium 

"       of  aluminum  . 

"      of  manganese 

"       of  iron 
Organic  matter  (nitrogenous) 
Sulphate  of  lime 


ME88R8.  THORNTON  AND  HERAPATH.l 

1172.05    Boiling  point  221°  75  F. 

2.455055  per  cent. 


7.822007 
0.251173 
12.109724 
1.217350 
0.005999 
0.055944 
0.005998 
0.002718 
0.061730 
0.067866 

24.055564  percent. 


Besides  the  above  salts,  there  were  likewise  faint  traces  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  silica,  and  bitumen,  and  also  doubtful 
traces  of  iodine. 

This  excessive  saltness  and  saturation  of  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  perhaps  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  im- 
mense masses  of  fossil  salt,  which  lie  on  a  mountain  along  its 
southwestern  border.  The  waters  of  the  lake  do  not  indeed, 
at  present,  ordinarily  wash  the  base  of  the  salt  mountain, 
though  they  appear  to  do  so  on  some  occasions ;  but  the 
rains  of  winter,  and  the  saline  streamlets  which  we  found 
running  to  the  sea  even  in  June,  would  naturally  carry  into 
it,  in  the  course  of  ages,  a  sufficiency  of  salt  to  produce  most 
of  tlie  phenomena.    Still,  as  the  salt  of  this  mountain  con- 


1  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal,  Jan.  1850,  Vol.  XLVHI.  pp.  313-319. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


215 


tains  no  peculiar  ingredients,  and  especially  no  bromium,i 
it  is  not  improbable  that  the  waters  of  the  sea  somewhere, 
perhaps  in  its  hidden  depths,  come  in  contact  with  other 
mineral  masses. 

In  consequence  of  its  great  specific  gravity,  the  water  of 
the  Dead  Sea  is  more  buoyant  than  any  other  known.  Per- 
sons unable  to  swim  elsewhere,  can  here  swim  without  diffi- 
culty, or  can  lie  upon  the  water,  or  sit  and  stand  in  it  with- 
out effort.^  After  bathing,  we  remarked  no  saline  crust 
upon  the  body,  as  some  travellers  report ;  but  there  was  a 
pricking  sensation,  especially  where  the  skin  had  been  chafed ; 
and  a  sort  of  greasy  feeling,  as  of  oil  on  the  skin,  which  lasted 
for  several  hours. 

Ancient  writers  were  well  acquainted  with  the  buoyant 
power  of  this  water.  Aristotle  mentions  the  reports,  founded 
doubtless  in  truth,  that  if  men  or  beasts  were  thrown  bound 
into  the  lake,  they  would  not  sink,  but  float  upon  the  sur- 
face.^ 

The  effect  of  the  great  specific  gravity  is  seen,  likewise,  in 
the  usual  placidity  of  the  sea,  and  the  weight  and  force  of  the 
waves  during  high  winds.  The  ordinary  breezes  of  summer 
occasion  scarcely  a  ripple  on  the  surface  ;  while  high  winds 
and  tempests  excite  angry  and  ponderous  billows.  When 
the  boats  of  Lynch  entered  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  Jordan, 
a  fresh  northwest  wind  was  blowing,  which  increased  to  a 
gale.  This  raised  a  heavy  sea,  in  which  the  boats  labored 
exceedingly ;  and  the  dense  waves  dashed  upon  the  bows  of 
the  boats  like  sledge-hammers.     The  spray  was  painful  to 

1  For  analyses  of  the  salt  of  Jebel  Usdum,  see  Anderson's  Geological  Report, 
p.  181. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  506  [II.  p.  212],  Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  324. 

3  Aristot.  Meteorol.,  II.  3.  Galen  de  Simpl.  Med.  Fac,  IV.  19.  Joseph.  Bel. 
Jud.,  4.  8.  4.   Reland,  Pulaestina,  pp.  241,  249. 


216 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  eyes  and  skin  ;  and,  evaporating  as  it  fell,  left  a  crust  of 
salt  upon  the  faces,  hands,  and  clothing.  All  at  once  the 
wind  ceased,  and  the  sea  fell  with  equal  rapidity  ;  in  twenty 
minutes  the  heavy  waters  had  settled  down  into  a  placid  sur- 
face.^ The  effect  of  similar  waves  rolling  in  upon  the  shore, 
is  seen  at  'Ain  Jidy  in  the  large  bank  of  pebbles  which  there 
lines  the  shore,  several  feet  higher  than  the  ordinary  level  of 
the  sea. 

According  to  the  testimony  of  all  antiquity  and  of  most 
modern  travellers,  there  exists  in  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea 
no  living  thing ;  no  trace  indeed  of  animal  or  vegetable  life.^ 
Occasionally  a  traveller  has  reported,  that  he  found  shells 
of  snails  or  periwinkles  along  the  shore,  especially  at  the 
northern  end ;  and  small  fish,  either  dead  or  dying,  have 
been  picked  up  in  the  same  region.  Seetzen  searched  for 
conchylia  and  sea-plants ;  but  found  none  of  either.  Some 
snails  that  he  picked  up  on  the  shore  were  land-snails.  The 
shells  reported  have  been  invariably  dead,  without  a  trace  of 
the  living  animal ;  and  have  probably  been  brought  into  the 
sea,  in  the  lapse  of  time,  from  the  Jordan,  or  from  other 
streams  and  fountains  on  the  east,  south,  and  west  of  the 
lake.  The  small  fish  of  the  Jordan  not  unfrequently  are 
carried  or  wander  into  the  heavy  waters  of  the  lake  ;  but 
they  speedily  die  and  float  upon  the  surface,  or  are  thrown 
out  upon  the  shore.  Schubert  saw  and  picked  up  several 
such ;  and  Jerome  relates  the  same  fact  as  known  in  his 
day :  "  When  the  Jordan,  swollen  by  the  rains,  sometimes 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  31;  Narrative,  p.  2G8. 

2  Tacit.  Hist.  5.  6.    Galen  de  Simpl.  Med.  Fac,  IV.  19,  (palv^Tat  eV  e/ceiVa> 
SSoTt  /i^TTj  ^uov  iyyiyv6(j.€p6i/Ti,  fi-ffre  (pvrSv.  Hieron.  ad  Ezek.  xlvii.  8,  "  Mare  mor- 
tuum,  in  quo  nihil  poterat  esse  vitale.   Re  vera,  juxta  literam,  liac  usque  nihil 
quod  spirat  et  possit  incedere,  prae  amaritudine  nimia,  in  hoc  maii  reperiri  po- 
test."  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.  ed.  Kohler,  pp.  12,  156. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


217 


carries  down  fish  into  the  lake,  they  die  immediately  and 
float  upon  the  sluggish  waters.^ 

The  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  lying 
in  this  deep  caldron,  shut  in  between  lofty  precipices  of 
naked  rock,  and  exposed  for  many  months  of  the  year  to  a 
burning  and  unclouded  sun,  is  naturally  very  great.  Under 
some  circumstances,  the  vapor  thus  rising  from  the  sea  is 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  At  'Ain  Jidy,  at  dawn,  we  could 
perceive  the  dense  evaporation  ascending  and  filling  the 
whole  chasm  of  the  lake,  and  spreading  itself  as  a  thin  haze 
above  the  tops  of  the  mountains.  Irby  and  Mangles  like- 
wise saw  "  the  evaporation  rising  in  broad,  transparent  col- 
umns of  vapor,  not  unlike  water-spouts  in  appearance,  but 
very  much  longer."  ^ 

Here  is  a  striking  example  of  the  equilibrium  so  often 
established  by  the  Creator  among  the  powers  of  nature. 
The  Dead  Sea,  in  the  course  of  ages,  has  never  been 
greatly  enlarged  by  an  excess  of  waters  from  the  Jordan 
and  rainy  seasons ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  has  it  ever  been 
too  far  exhausted  by  the  enormous  evaporation. 

One  efiect  of  this  strong  evaporation  is  seen  in  the  depos- 
its of  salt  made  by  the  sea  at  certain  places  upon  its  shores. 
In  the  rainy  season,  when  the  lake  is  full,  its  water  spreads 
itself  over  several  low,  marshy  tracts  ;  and  when  afterwards 
the  level  of  the  lake  becomes  lower,  these  tracts  are  left  as 
shallow  pools  or  basins  ;  and  the  water  in  them  being  speedily 
evaporated,  the  bottom  is  covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  salt. 
The  chief  place  of  this  kind  is  at  Birket  el-Khulil,  an  hour  or 
more  south  of  'Ain  Jidy.  This  is  a  part  of  the  beach  more 
depressed  and  springy  than  the  rest.    It  is  flooded  at  the 

1  Sec  more,  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  516,  517  [II.  pp.  226-228]. 

2  Travels,  p.  137.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  512,  524  [II.  pp.  220, 239]. 

28 


218 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  L.VXD. 


time  of  high  sea,  shortly  after  the  spring  rains,  and  shows 
over  its  entire  area,  very  soon  after  the  fall  of  the  water, 
a  crust  or  residuum  of  impure  salt,  thickest  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pans,  and  thinning  to  a  more  frost-hke  efflorescence 
near  the  margin  of  the  temporary  pools.  Bits  of  bitumen 
and  sulphur  are  not  unfrequently  met  with.  At  certain 
seasons,  the  tract  is  wet  with  the  exudations  of  a  fetid  brine ; 
and  the  whole  neighborhood  becomes  reeking  with  the  smells 
of  sulplmreous  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas. 

This  salt  is  carried  away  on  donkeys  by  the  peasants  of 
the  villages  south  of  Jerusalem,  for  their  own  use.  We  fell 
in  with  one  such  company  at  'Ain  Jidy.^ 

Similar  salt  pools  and  saline  basins  are  found  along  the 
sliore  for  two  miles  south  of  Birket  cl-Khulil.  A  place  was 
pointed  out  to  us  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  sea,  where 
salt  is  likewise  gathered.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake, 
also,  Irby  and  Mangles  found  Arabs  on  the  north  side  of  the 
isthmus  of  the  peninsula,  "  peeling  off  a  solid  surface  of 
salt,  several  inches  in  thickness,  and  loading  it  on  asses." 
The  same  deposit  is  doubtless  found  on  other  parts  of  the 
coasts.2 

It  is  not  strange,  that  a  lake  exhibiting  so  many  extraor- 
dinary features,  —  thus  sunk  in  its  deep  chasm  between 
sterile  mountains,  devoid  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  life 
witliin  its  waters,  and  surrounded  by  desolation,  —  should 
bear  the  appropriate  name  oithe  Dead  Sea,  nor  that  it  should 
become  the  subject  of  superstitious  and  legendary  reports. 
Seneca  relates  that  bricks  would  not  sink  in  it.^    Early  trav- 

1  Anderson's  Geological  Report,  pp.  176,  177.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  504 
[H.  p.  210]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  516,  535  [H.  pp.  226,  254].  Irby  and  Mangles, 
p.  139. 

3  Seneca  Quaest.  Nat.  lib.  II.   Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  248. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


219 


ellers  describe  the  lake  as  an  "  infernal  region  ;  "  its  black 
and  fetid  waters  always  emitting  a  noisome  smoke  or  vapor, 
which,  being  driven  over  the  land,  destroys  all  vegetation 
like  a  frost. ^  Hence  too  the  popular  report  that  birds  cannot 
fly  over  its  deadly  waters. 

All  this,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  is  merely  fabulous. 
Smokes  are  indeed  often  seen  in  the  valley  and  on  the  hills ; 
but  they  proceed  from  Arab  encampments  or  from  the  prep- 
aration of  charcoal.  The  waters  of  the  lake  itself  emit  no 
noisome  smell  nor  noxious  vapor.  Some  of  the  marshy 
spots  along  the  shores  send  forth  at  some  seasons,  as  we  have 
seen,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas ;  in  other  places  there  is 
the  smell  of  decaying  plants  brought  down  by  the  Jordan  or 
smaller  streams  and  cast  upon  the  shore  ;  and,  again,  there  is 
the  usual  odor  of  salt  marshes,  especially  at  the  southern 
end.  We  ourselves  saw,  and  many  travellers  have  seen, 
birds  flying  in  all  directions  over  the  lake.  The  absence  of 
water-fowl  has  been  remarked,  and  this  is  readily  accounted 
for  by  the  total  absence  of  fish  and  water-plants,  on  which 
they  feed.  But  the  region  is  full  of  birds  ;  and  at  'Ain  Jidy 
we  were  surprised  and  delighted  to  hear  their  morning  song 
in  the  midst  of  the  solitude  and  grandeur  of  these  desola- 
tions. The  trees,  and  rocks,  and  air  around  were  full  of  the 
carols  of  the  lark,  the  cheerful  whistle  of  the  quail,  the  call 
of  the  partridge,  and  the  warbling  of  many  other  feathered 
choristers ;  while  birds  of  prey  were  soaring  and  screaming  in 
front  of  the  cliffs  and  over  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

The  Egyptian  heat  of  the  climate,  which  is  found  through- 
out the  whole  GhOr,  is  in  itself  unhealthy  ;  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  exhalations  from  the  marshes,  gives  rise  in  summer 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  511  [II.  p.  220].  Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  249.  Comp. 
Tacit.  Hist.,  5.  6. 


220 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


to  intermittent  fevers;  so  that  the  Ghawarineh,  or  proper 
inhabitants  of  the  Ghor,  including  the  people  of  Jericho,  are 
a  feeble  and  sickly  race.  But  this  has  no  necessary  connec- 
tion with  the  Dead  Sea,  as  such;  and  the  same  phenomena 
might  probably  exist,  in  at  least  an  equal  degree,  were  the 
waters  of  the  lake  fresh  and  limpid,  or  even  were  there  here 
no  lake  at  all.^ 

Asphaltum.  In  ancient  times,  such  masses  of  asphaltum 
or  bitumen  usually  floated  in  these  heavy  waters,  that  they 
were  known  as  the  Asphaltic  Lake,  Lacus  Asphaltites,  Jo- 
sephus  affirms  that  "  the  sea  in  many  places  sends  up  black 
masses  of  asphaltum,  having  the  form  and  size  of  headless 
oxen."  Diodorus  Siculus  relates,  that  the  bitumen  was 
thrown  up  in  masses,  covering  sometimes  two  or  tliree 
plethra  (acres),  and  having  the  appearance  of  islands.  The 
ancients  supposed  it  could  not  be  broken  or  separated,  except 
by  touching  it  with  blood.  The  bitumen  of  the  Dead  Sea 
was  regarded  as  superior  to  any  other 

In  modern  times,  masses  of  bitumen  are  only  occasionally 
found  floating  in  the  Dead  Sea,  at  long  and  irregular  inter- 
vals. The  Arabs  on  the  western  coast  affirm,  that  it  is  tlnis 
found  only  after  earthquakes.  The  only  two  known  recent 
instances  of  its  appearance  seem  to  confirm  this  report. 
After  the  earthquake  of  18B4,  a  large  quantity  of  asphaltum 
was  cast  upon  the  shore  near  the  southwest  part  of  the  lake, 
of  which  one  tribe  of  the  Arabs  brought  about  sixty  kuntdrs 
(cwt.)  to  market,  and  a  large  amount  was  purchased  by  the 
Frank  merchants  of  Beirut.  Again,  after  the  great  earth- 
quake of  January,  1837,  which  destroyed  Safet,  a  large  mass 

J  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  511,  512,  524  [H.  pp.  219,  220,  239]. 
2  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  4.   Diod.  Sic,  2.  48.   Plin.  Hist.  Nat.,  7.  13.  Tacit. 
Hist.,  5.  6.   Dioscor.  de  re  Med.,  1.  99. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


221 


of  bitumen  (one  said  like  an  island,  another  like  a  house) 
was  discovered  floating  in  the  sea,  and  was  driven  aground 
on  the  west  side,  not  far  north  of  Jebel  Usdum.  The  neigh- 
boring Arabs  swam  off  around  it,  and  cut  it  up  with  axes, 
so  as  to  bring  it  ashore.  It  was  carried  off  by  camel  loads, 
and  sold  for  four  piasters  (about  sixteen  cents)  the  rati  or 
pound.  In  this  way  one  tribe  received  more  than  five  hun- 
dred dollars,  while  others  sold  to  the  amount  of  two  or  three 
thousand  dollars.  \ 

Except  in  these  two  instances,  the  Arab  sheikh,  who  act^d  ; 
as  our  guide,  a  man  of  fifty  years  old,  who  had  always  lived 
near  by,  had  never  known  of  bitumen  appearing  in  the  sea, 
nor  heard  of  it  from  his  fathers.  Seetzen  also  relates  in 
1807,  that  old  men  told  him  they  remembered  its  appear- 
ance only  two  or  three  times  during  their  lives.^ 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  rightly  understood,  that  the 
floating  masses  of  bitumen  rose  from  some  part  of  the  bottom 
of  the  lake.  Among  the  western  Arabs,  the  idea  has  been 
current  that  it  came  from  among  the  cliffs  along  the  eastern 
shore.  But  both  the  eastern  and  western  shores  have  now 
been  fully  examined,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  floating  bitu- 
men could  only  come  from  beneath  the  waters.  The  quarter 
where  the  masses  of  1834  and  1837  were  discovered,  would 
suggest  that  they  had  been  detached  by  the  shocks  from  the 
bottom  of  the  southern  bay,  which  apparently  occupies  what 
was  anciently  the  vale  of  Siddim,  with  its  slime  pits  or  wells 
of  bitumen.^ 

Character  of  the  Shores,  The  parallel  chains  of  mountains 
which  shut  in  the  Ghor,  and  between  which  the  Dead  Sea 
lies  sunk  in  its  depressed  chasm,  assume  just  here  an  aspect 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  517  [II.  p.  228].    Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  p.  372. 

2  Gen.  xiv.  3, 10.   See  above,  p.  81. 


222 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


of  unwonted  nakedness  and  desolation,  as  well  as  of  stern 
and  savage  grandeur.  Below  are  the  sluggish  waters  of  the 
Sea  of  Deatli,  devoid  of  all  life-giving  qualities  ;  and  above 
them  the  naked  rocks  and  cliffs,  often  perpendicular,  tower 
to  the  height  of  twelve  hundred  and  fifteen  hundred  feet. 
The  view  from  one  of  these,  overhanging  'Ain  Jidy,  has 
already  been  described. 

The  body  of  the  mountains  is  everywhere  yellowish  lime- 
stone, often  verging  into  a  dirty  white.  On  the  western 
coast,  there  is  much  chalk  and  marl  in  various  parts. 
Tracts  of  low  white  conical  or  tent-shaped  hills  and  short 
ridges  occur,  of  fantastic  shape,  as  if  the  intervening  earth 
had  been  washed  away  by  torrents,  leaving  behind  only  a 
bleached  skeleton,  and  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  frightful 
desert.  Such  a  tract  is  seen  in  the  south  behind  Jebel  Us- 
dum  ;  and  another  on  the  north  of  Ras  el-Feshkhah.^  Along 
the  eastern  shore  there  is  much  sandstone  overlying  the  lime- 
stone, as  at  the  mouths  of  the  Wadys  cl-Mujib  and  Zerka 
Ma'in,  and  further  north ;  also  beds  of  marl ;  and  in  the 
northern  part  blocks  of  basalt,  and  lava  of  every  form  and 
variety  .2 

The  immediate  shore  of  the  lake,  between  the  water  and 
the  base  of  the  cliffs,  is  nowhere  more  than  a  narrow  strip. 
On  the  western  coast,  the  cliff  el-Mersed,  just  north  of  'Ain 
Jidy,  juts  out  into  the  sea,  and  admits  of  no  passage  around 
it,  except  when  the  water  is  very  low ;  and  then  only  with 
difficulty .3  There  is  also  no  passage  around  Ras  el-Fesh- 
khah.    With  these  two  exceptions,  there  is  a  strip  of  land  at 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  534,  U.  p.  103  [H.  pp.  233,  475]. 

2  Andei-son's  Report,  pp.  188-194.   Seetzen,  Reisen,  IL  p.  369. 

3  Seetzen,  Reisen,  IL  p.  239;  comp.  pp.  257,  258.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  506 
[II.p.212J. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


223 


the  base  of  the  cliffs  along  the  whole  western  coast.  On  the 
eastern  side,  there  is  a  like  strand  extending  from  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  sea  to  the  isthmus  of  the  peninsula.  North 
of  the  isthmus,  the  cliffs  are  understood  to  rise,  for  the  most 
part,  directly  from  the  water ;  and  no  path  whatever  exists 
along  the  immediate  shore.  Seetzen,  in  1807,  travelled  on 
foot  from  the  isthmus  northward  ;  but  was  able  to  descend 
to  the  water's  edge  only  occasionally ;  as  at  the  mouths  of 
the  Mojib  and  Zerka  Ma'm.^ 

The  southern  shore  is  an  extensive  flat  or  salt  marsh, 
setting  far  up  towards  the  line  of  the  Akrabbim  or  Scorpion 
Cliffs.  This  marsh  is  regarded  by  tlie  Arabs  as  impassable  ; 
and  they  travel  only  along  the  edge  of  the  lake,  or  at  the 
base  of  the  said  "cliffs.  So  nearly  is  this  tract  a  dead  level, 
that  Lynch's  boats,  drawing  only  six  inches  of  Avater,  were 
unable  to  approach  within  half  a  mile  of  the  southern  ex- 
tremity At  the  north  end  of  the  sea  the  land  is  somewhat 
higher,  forming  a  level  tract  a  few  feet  above  the  water, 
varied  only  by  a  few  slight  swells.  The  surface  of  this  plain 
is  everywhere  a  dust  like  ashes  ;  and  is  covered  with  a  tliin, 
smooth,  nitrous  crust,  through  which  the  feet  of  men  and 
horses  break,  and  sink  up  to  the  ankles. ^ 

The  belt  lying  between  the  water  and  the  high-water  mark 
along  the  shore,  has  already  been  described,  as  seen  from  the 
cliffs  above.  It  extends  all  around  the  lake,  including  the 
shores  of  the  peninsula,  except  along  the  flat  at  the  south 
end,  and  the  cliffs  in  the  northeast  part ;  and  gives  to  the 
whole  the  appearance  of  some  great  estuary  or  bay  at  the 
time  of  ebb-tide.* 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  363-373. 

2  Anderson's  Geological  Report,  p.  182. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  534,  555  [II.  p.  254].  4  gee  above,  p.  211. 


224  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

Along  the  lower  shore  or  strand,  various  minerals  are 
occasionally  picked  up  in  small  quantities.  Bits  of  bitumen 
are  sometimes,  though  rarely,  found.  Sulphur  is  oftener 
met  with  on  various  parts  of  the  shore  and  peninsula,  in 
pieces  as  large  as  an  English  walnut.  The  Arabs  report  that 
it  is  found  in  the  sea,  near  'Ain  el-Feshkhah,  in  lumps  as 
large  as  a  man's  fist ;  and  they  collect  enough  to  make  from 
it  their  own  gunpowder.  As  this  spot  is  nearly  opposite  the 
hot  springs  of  Callirrhoe,  which  deposit  much  sulphur,  may 
it  not,  perhaps,  in  part,  be  brought  down  from  thence  by 
the  stream  into  the  sea  ?  Small  lumps  of  nitre  are  also 
picked  up ;  and  larger  pieces  or  balls  of  pumice-stone  are 
found  along  the  western  shore,  coming  doubtless  from  the 
lava  districts  on  the  northeast  coast. ^ 

Back  of  the  strand,  we  have  in  the  south  the  masses  of 
fossil  salt  in  Jebel  Usdum  ;  and  on  the  eastern  shore,  south 
of  the  isthmus,  Seetzen  saw  blocks  of  most  beautiful  brec- 
cia and  conglomerate,  composed  of  granite,  jasper,  griinstein, 
feldspath,  of  various  colors  ;  as  also  blocks  of  jasper  of  a  dark 
olive  green,  etc.  All  these  he  supposes  to  have  been  brought 
down  by  torrents  from  the  ravines  of  the  mountain.^  In 
the  hills  on  the  northwestern  quarter  of  the  sea,  is  found  the 
famous  stink-stone^  or  '  stone  of  Moses,'  as  the  Arabs  call  it, 
a  bituminous  limestone  which  partially  ignites  in  the  fire  and 
emits  a  bituminous  smell.  It  receives  a  high  polish  ;  and  is 
much  used  in  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem  for  the  manufacture 
of  rosaries  and  other  trinkets  and  small  articles,  which  are 
largely  purchased  by  the  pilgrims.  The  chief  locality  of  this 
mineral  is  around  Neby  Mousa,  and  the  neighboring  Wady 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  512  [H.  p.  221].   Anderson's  Report,  pp.  160,  176. 

2  Seetzen,  Reisen,  IL  p.  354.   Corap.  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  109. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


225 


Kimcitirali,  on  the  way  from  the  north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea 
to  Mar  Saba.i 

Along  the  western  sliore  there  is  much  drift-wood,  mostly 
lying  at  high-water  mark,  several  feet  above  the  ordinary 
level  of  the  sea.  Trunks  of  large  trees  are  sometimes  seen. 
They  come  partly  from  the  Jordan  as  it  washes  away  its 
banks  ;  and  partly  are  brought  down  by  torrents  from  the 
ravines  of  the  adjacent  mountains.^ 

The  Peninsula.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  as  one  looks  down  upon  it  from  the  western  cliffs,  is  the 
long,  low,  narrow  peninsula,  which  occupies  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  southern  half  of  the  lake,  and  is  joined  to  the 
eastern  shore  by  a  broad  and  lower  isthmus.  The  western 
line  of  the  peninsula,  between  its  northern  and  southern 
points,  is  nearly  straight,  and  about  ten  geographical  miles 
in  length.  The  distance  from  the  head  of  the  northern  bay 
to  the  northern  point,  is  about  five  geographical  miles.  The 
breadth  of  the  isthmus  lying  between  the  southern  half  of 
the  peninsula  and  the  shore  from  north  to  south,  is  about  the 
same  ;  while  from  the  middle  of  the  western  side  to  the  east- 
ern shore,  or  base  of  the  mountains,  is  also  about  five  geo- 
graphical miles. 

The  direction  of  the  peninsula  is  nearly  from  N.  N.  E.  to 
S.  S.  W.,  so  that  the  northern  point  is  twice  as  distant  from 
the  western  shore  as  the  southern  point ;  the  former  being 
about  five  geographical  miles,  and  the  latter  about  two  and 
a  half.  This  forms  the  strait,  or  narrowest  part  of  the  sea, 
connecting  the  deep  northern  portion  with  the  shallower 
southern  bay. 

As  seen  from  the  western  cliffs,  the  peninsula  appears  as  a 

1  Anderson's  Geological  Report,  pp.  155,  159. 

2  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  p.  241.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  507  [II.  p.  213J. 

29 


226 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


long,  low  sand-bank.  This  however  is  not  its  real  nature. 
From  north  to  south  a  steep  white  ridge  runs  like  a  spine 
along  its  whole  length.  This  ridge  presents  steep,  sloping 
sides,  seamed  and  furrowed  into  deep  hollows  by  the  rains, 
and  terminating  at  the  summit  in  sharp  triangular  points, 
standing  up  like  rows  of  tents  ranged  one  above  another. 
The  whole  is  of  a  substance  apparently  partaking  of  the 
mixture  of  soft  and  broken  chalk  and  slate,  and  is  wholly 
destitute  of  vegetation.  The  height  of  the  ridge  varies  from 
ten  to  about  thirty  feet  above  its  base,  becoming  gradually 
lower  towards  its  northern  extremity.  The  opposite  sides 
of  the  cliff  present  the  same  general  appearance,  and  are  of 
equal  height ;  while  adjacent  to  the  isthmus  it  spreads  out 
into  broader  table-land.  The  elevation  above  the  water  is 
from  forty  to  eighty  feet. 

The  peninsula  itself  is  an  accumulation  of  post-tertiary 
deposits  disposed  horizontally.  The  beds  of  which  it  con- 
sists are  chiefly  a  friable  carbonate  of  lime,  intermixed  with 
sand  and  sandy  marls.  Fossil  salt  occurs  in  small  quanti- 
ties ;  and  the  few  minerals  picked  up  along  the  strand  are 
similar  to  those  found  along  the  western  shores,  such  as  bits 
of  bitumen,  small  lumps  of  sulphur  and  nitre,  and  balls  of 
pumice-stone,  etc.  Salt  is  also  deposited  by  the  water  on 
the  shore  of  the  northern  bay.^ 

The  surface  of  the  isthmus  proper  is  lower;  it  is  well 
watered,  and  exceedingly  fertile.  Directly  upon  it  issues  the 
brook  from  Wady  ed-Dera'ah,  coming  down  from  Kerak  ; 
its  channel  goes  to  the  north  bay,  but  several  canals  are  led 
from  it  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  This  brook  Irby  and 
Mangles  found  flowing  in  June,  though  Lynch  saw  it  dry 

^  Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  138-140.  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp.  184-187. 
Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  520  [II.  p.  232].   See  above,  pp.  218,  224. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


227 


early  in  May.  Another  more  permanent  stream  comes  down 
further  north  from  Wady  Beni  Hamady  into  the  north  bay ; 
and  this  too  is  used  for  irrigation.  Portions  of  the  isthmus 
are  cleared  and  cultivated  ;  the  rest  is  scattered  over  with 
thickets  of  shrubs  and  trees.  Among  these  are  acacias 
(Scyal  and  Tiilh),  the  Dom  or  Nubk,  the  Zukkum,  etc.  Fur- 
ther north,  towards  the  bay,  are  tamarisks  and  a  cane-brake 
or  jungle.  On  the  isthmus,  in  the  heart  of  the  thicket,  and 
not  visible  in  any  direction  beyond  a  few  yards,  is  the  miser- 
able village  of  the  Ghawarineh,  who  cultivate  this  tract.  It 
is  called  el-Mezra'ah ;  and  the  isthmus  around  bears  the  name 
of  Ghor  el-Mezra'ah.i 

It  is  singular,  that  no  mention  of  this  peninsula  has  come 
down  to  us  from  antiquity  ;  not  an  allusion  to  it  occurs,  so 
far  as  known,  in  any  ancient  writer.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
historians  of  the  crusades ;  though  some  of  them  must  have 
passed  through  this  region.  Seetzen  is  the  earliest  traveller 
who  reports  the  peninsula.  He  first  saw  it  in  the  spring  of 
1806,  from  the  western  mountains,  and  took  it  for  an  island  ; 
but  a  year  later  he  visited  it,  and  entered  it  upon  his  map, 
though  not  in  its  true  form.  This  map  was  published  by 
Zach,  and  again  by  Kloden  in  1817.^  In  the  year  1818,  Irby 
and  Mangles  (with  Messrs.  Banks  and  Legh)  travelled  from 
Hebron  around  the  south  end  of  the  sea,  and  so  by  way  of  the 
isthmus  to  Kerak  ;  and  again,  on  returning  from  Petra,  they 
descended  from  Kerak  to  the  peninsula,  and  traversed  the 
whole  of  it.    To  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  published 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  350-352.  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  138.  Lynch,  Narra- 
tive, p.  352. 

2  Seetzen,  in  Zach's  Monatl.  Corresp.  XVIII.  p.  438.  Reisen,  I.  p.  429.  Reisen, 
IT.  pp.  350-352.  The  map  was  published  in  Zach's  Monatl.  Corresp.  Vol.  XXII.; 
also  reduced  in  Kloden's  Palaest.,  Berlin,  1817. 


228 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


account  of  tins  remarkable  feature  of  the  Dead  Sea.^  Later 
travellers,  and  especially  the  United  States'  Expedition,  have 
delineated  the  ordinary  form  of  the  peninsula ;  but  its  out- 
line necessarily  differs  considerably  in  different  seasons,  ac- 
cording to  the  higher  or  lower  state  of  the  water  in  the  lake. 

A  second  and  very  small  peninsula,  or  low  projection,  is 
found  on  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  Dead  Sea,  nearly 
tlu'ee  miles  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  a  grav- 
elly point  with  large  stones  upon  it,  connected  with  the 
main  shore  by  a  low  narrow  neck.  The  whole  has  much 
the  appearance  of  a  wharf  or  pier.  When  the  sea  is  full, 
the  water  overflows  this  isthmus  ;  and  then  the  peninsula 
presents  the  appearance  of  an  island.  As  such  it  has  been 
reported  by  travellers.^ 

Besides  mistaking  these  peninsulas  for  islands,  travellers 
have  sometimes  been  deceived  by  dark  shadows  resting  on 
the  water.  Irby  and  Mangles  were  several  times  thus  de- 
ceived. Once,  when  near  Rabbath  Moab,  on  the  eastern 
mountains,  they  saw,  at  sunset,  a  dark  shade  resting  on  the 
sea,  which  assumed  so  exactly  the  appearance  of  an  island, 
that  they  did  not  doubt  of  it,  even  after  looking  through  a 
telescope.^  We  ourselves,  in  descending  the  western  cliffs 
to  'Ain  Jidy,  saw  near  the  opposite  shore  and  north  of  the 
peninsula,  what  seemed  to  be  another  long,  dark-colored 
shoal  or  sand-bank.  On  looking  further,  however,  it  proved 
to  be  a  spot  of  calm,  smooth  water,  around  which  the  rest 
of  the  sea  was  covered  with  a  ripple  ;  and  the  dark-brown 
eastern  mountains,  being  reflected  in  this  mirror,  gave  to 

1  Travels,  pp.  109,  138-140. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  534.  Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  270.  Lands  of  the  Mos- 
lem, p.  280.  Doubtless  the  island  reported  by  Warburton,  Crescent  and  the  Cross, 
IL  p.  280;  and  by  Wilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  H.  p.  21. 

3  Travels,  p.  141. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


229 


it  their  own  color.  Yet,  for  the  moment,  the  illusion  was 
complete,  that  a  long,  dark  yellow  sand-bank  or  island  lay 
before  us.^ 

Tlie  Ford.  Seetzen,  in  1806,  was  the  first  to  learn  from 
the  Arabs  of  the  eastern  mountains,  that  a  ford  existed  in 
the  Dead  Sea,  leading  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  across  to  near  the  northern  end  of  Usdum,  not  far 
from  the  heap  of  stones  called  Um  Zoghal.  This  ford  was 
said  to  be  available  only  when  the  water  of  the  lake  was  very 
low  ;  and  had,  at  that  time,  not  been  used  for  several  years, 
on  account  of  the  depth  of  the  water.  It  is  marked  on  his 
map.  Burckhardt,  in  1812,  heard  a  similar,  but  less  definite 
report.  The  Arab  Sheikh  who  was  our  guide  in  1838,  af- 
firmed that  he  had  himself  crossed  by  the  same  ford  many 
years  before  ;  although  now,  and  for  several  years,  the  water 
was  too  deep  to  be  forded. ^ 

Irby  and  Mangles  relate,  that  in  descending  from  Kerak 
to  the  peninsula,  in  1818,  they  fell  in  with  a  small  caravan 
going  to  Hebron  by  way  of  the  ford ;  and  while  the  travel- 
lers were  examining  the  northern  part,  this  caravan  crossed 
the  peninsula  to  the  strait,  which  they  forded.  The  travel- 
lers soon  after  arrived  at  the  same  point ;  saw  the  ford  "  in- 
dicated by  boughs  of  trees  ;"  and  observed  the  caravan  just 
landed  on  the  opposite  side.  The  width  of  the  strait  they 
judged  to  be  a  mile  ;  and  as  there  were  asses  in  the  caravan, 
the  depth  could  not  be  very  great.^ 

We  thus  have  testimony  to  the  existence  of  two  fords, 
where  the  water  of  the  sea  is  low.    Lynch,  in  1848,  took 

1  BibUcal  Researches,  I.  p.  504  [II.  p.  208]. 

2  Seetzen,  Reisen,  11.  p.  358.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  394.  Biblical  Researches, 
I.  p.  521  [11.  p.  235]. 

3  Travels,  p.  140. 


230 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


soundings  in  search  of  both  ;  but  found  neither.  Yet  on  his 
map  the  lines  of  the  two  fords,  as  laid  down  by  Seetzen  and 
on  our  map,  exhibit  no  figures  or  marks  of  soundings.^ 

All  this  furnishes  another  indication  that  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  were  higher  in  1848  than  they  were  in  1838; 
and,  further,  that  in  1818,  when  Irby  and  Mangles  were 
there,  the  lake  was  at  its  lowest  point  of  ebb.  At  that  time 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  strait  were  so  greatly  dimin- 
ished, as  to  leave  it  fordable.  Nor  is  this  surprising ;  for, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  level  of  the  sea  varies  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen feet  in  different  years  and  different  seasons.  This  vari- 
ation depends  on  the  fluctuations  of  the  rainy  seasons,  and 
the  amount  of  water  which  falls  annually  along  the  upper 
valleys  and  basins  of  the  Jordan,  and  on  the  mountains  and 
deserts  in  the  south  as  far  as  to  the  gulf  of  'Akabah.^ 

Navigation  and  Exploration.  There  is  only  the  slightest 
historical  evidence,  that  in  ancient  times  the  Dead  Sea  was 
ever  navigated.  Josephus,  whom  Tacitus  likewise  copies,  in 
his  fabulous  account  of  the  asphaltum,  speaks  of  it  as  being 
gathered  into  boats ;  but  these  might  perhaps  be  regarded  as 
a  feature  of  the  fable.^  Josephus  also  relates  that  the  Mo- 
abites  and  Ammonites,  in  coming  to  make  war  upon  king 
Jehoshaphat,  pitched  at  En-gedi,  after  passing  (Sta/Saz^re?) 
the  lake  ;  but  this  might  be  around  the  lake,  or  by  the  ford, 
and  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  passage  of  an  army  in 
boats.*  Again,  the  same  writer  informs  us  that  Placidus, 
who  had  pursued  the  routed  Jews  from  Gadara  to  the 
Asphaltic  lake,  placed  soldiers  in  boats  in  order  to  de- 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  pp.  35,  3G. 

2  See  above,  p.  209. 

3  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  4.   Tacitus,  Hist.,  5.  6. 

*  Joseph.  Antiq.,  9.  1.  2.    Comp.  2  Chron.  xx.  1,  2. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


231 


stroy  those  who  took  refuge  in  the  lake.^  Now  these  may 
have  been  slight  boats  or  rafts  got  up  for  the  occasion ;  or,  at 
most,  they  may  have  been  skiffs  on  the  Jordan  belonging  to 
the  towns  Abila,  Julias  (Livias),  and  Besimoth,  which  lay 
east  of  the  Jordan  near  its  mouth,  and  are  mentioned  in 
the  same  connection.  No  other  ancient  notice  is  known  to 
exist ;  and  the  above,  at  any  rate,  do  not  indicate  any  fre- 
quent or  permanent  navigation  of  the  lake. 

About*the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  we  find  a  notice 
of  like  import  in  the  Arabian  geographer  Edrisi.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  Dead  Sea,  he  says :  One  sees  these  small  craft 
intended  to  transport  provisions  and  fruits  from  Zoar  and 
Darah  (perhaps  Wady  Dera'ah)  to  Jericho  and  other  places 
of  the  Ghor."2  Obviously  Edrisi  here  speaks  only  from 
report. 

The  first  to  navigate  the  Dead  Sea  in  modern  times,  was 
Costigan,  an  Irish  traveller,  who,  in  July,  1835,  had  a  small 
boat  carried  over  from  the  seacoast  to  the  lake  of  Tiberias ; 
and,  with  his  Malt.ese  servant,  descended  the  Jordan  to  the 
Dead  Sea,  as  has  been  already  related.  He  would  seem  not 
to  have  proceeded  further  than  the  peninsula ;  but  returned 
exhausted  to  the  nortiiern  shore ;  and  was  carried  up  to  Je- 
rusalem to  die.  This  was  the  sad  and  only  result  of  his 
voyage.^ 

He  was  followed,  in  March,  1837,  by  Messrs.  G.  H.  Moore 
and  W.  G.  Beke.  They  transported  a  light  boat  from  Yafa 
across  the  mountains,  intending  to  survey  the  sea,  and  ex- 
amine scientifically  its  peculiar  features.  After  visiting  vari- 

1  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud,,  4,  7.  6:  tovs  els  tV  \lfjLU7{v  KaTa(pevy6vTas.  Comp.  Reland, 
Palaestina,  p.  252. 

2  Edrisi,  par  Jaubert,  I.  p.  338. 

■  3  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  229  [I.  p.  337] .    See  above,  p.  169. 


232 


Pin^SICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


ous  points  Oil  the  lake,  and  making  experiments  in  respect 
to  the  boiling  point  of  water,  they  were  led,  on  account  of 
various  obstacles,  to  discontinue  their  labors  ;  which  were 
never  resumed.  The  only  result  of  their  enterprise  yet 
made  known  to  the  public,  is  the  earliest  discovery  of  the 
depression  of  the  Dead  Sea;  which  they  supposed  to  be 
about  five  hundred  feet.^ 

Hardly  more  successful  was  the  enterprise  of  Lieut.  Moly- 
neux ;  who,  after  descending  the  Jordan,  entered  upon  the 
Dead  Sea  in  the  first  days  of  September,  1847.  He  went  as 
far  south  as  the  neighborhood  of  the  peninsula ;  took  three 
deep  soundings ;  and,  returning  to  the  northern  end,  pro- 
ceeded to  Jerusalem ;  but  died  soon  after  reaching  his  ship. 
A  full  account  of  his  voyage  has  already  been  given 

The  United  States'  Expedition,  under  the  command  of 
Lieut.  Lynch,  after  descending  the  Jordan  with  two  metal 
boats,  entered  the  Dead  Sea,  April  18,  1848,  and  continued 
on  its  shores  until  May  10  ;  in  all,  twenty-two  days.  The 
main  objects  of  attention  were :  1.  The  depth  and  depression 
of  the  sea ;  the  former  determined  by  many  lines  of  sound- 
ings ;  and  the  latter  by  an  engineer's  level  carried  over  to 
the  Mediterranean.  2.  The  form  and  extent  of  the  lake,  its 
geographical  position,  and  the  character  of  the  shores ;  for 
which  purposes  the  whole  line  of  coast  was  visited,  and  many 
topographical  sketches  taken.  3.  The  character  of  the  wa- 
ters, and  the  mineral  substances  found  in  connection  witli 
the  lake.  4.  The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  its 
various  changes,  etc.  etc. 

The  examination  was  everywhere  careful  and  thorough  ; 
and  so  complete,  that  a  like  investigation  will  hardly  be 

1  Journal  of  Royal  Gcograph.  Soc,  VIL  p.  456. 

2  See  above,  pp.  109,  170. 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


233 


required  for  many  years  to  come.  A  general  account  of  the 
Expedition  has  already  been  given  above 

Destruction  of  Sodom.  With  the  Dead  Sea  is  naturally 
connected  some  reference  to  the  catastrophe  of  Sodom  and 
the  other  cities  of  the  plain. 

It  was  a  plausible  idea  which  formerly  prevailed,  that  the 
Jordan,  of  old  before  the  catastrophe  of  the  plain,  pursued 
its  way  through  the  'Arabah  to  the  Red  Sea  at  'Akabah. 
But  the  discovery  of  the  great  depression  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
as  well  as  of  the  whole  Jordan  valley  and  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  'Arabah  further  south  ;  the  northward  inclination  or 
direction  of  all  the  lateral  valleys  along  the  'Arabah;  and 
the  fact  that  the  water-courses  of  the  high  western  des- 
ert, from  a  point  far  south  of  'Akabah,  all  run  northwards 
towards  the  Dead  Sea ;  —  all  these  circumstances  go  to  show 
that  the  configuration  of  this  region,  in  its  main  features, 
is  coeval  with  the  present  condition  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  in  general ;  and  not  the  effect  of  any  local  catastrophe 
at  a  later  period.  It  follows,  that  the  Dead  Sea  existed  in  its 
deep  chasm,  as  the  terminus  of  the  Jordan,  long  before  the 
historic  period. 

It  seems,  too,  to  be  a  necessary  conclusion  that  the  Dead 
Sea  anciently  extended  no  further  south  than  the  peninsula ; 
and  that  the  cities  destroyed  lay  on  the  south  of  the  lake  as 
it  then  existed.  Lot  fled  from  Sodom  to  Zoar,  which  was 
near  and  Zoar,  as  we  know,  was  in  the  mouth  of  Wady 
Kerak,  as  it  opens  upon  the  neck  of  the  peninsula.  The 
fertile  plain,  therefore,  which  Lot  chose  for  himself,  where 
Sodom  was  situated,  and  which  was  well  watered  like  the 
land  of  Egypt,  lay  also  south  of  the  lake,  "  as  thou  comest  to 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  42.   See  above,  pp.  170, 171. 

2  Gen.  xix.  20. 

30 


234 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Zoar."  1  Even  to  the  present  day,  more  living  streams  flow 
into  the  Ghor,  at  the  south  end  of  the  sea,  from  Wadys  of 
the  eastern  mountains,  than  are  found  so  near  together  in 
all  Palestine  besides.  Tracts  of  exuberant  fertility  are  still 
seen  along  these  streams ;  as  on  this  isthmus  and  around 
es-Safieh ;  though  elsewhere  the  district  around  the  southern 
bay  is  mostly  desert. 

In  the  same  plain  were  slime  pits,  that  is,  .wells  or  foun- 
tains of  bitumen  or  asphaltum,  which  appear  to  have  been 
of  considerable  extent.  The  tract  in  which  they  were  im- 
mediately situated  is  called  the  vale  of  Siddim,  probably  a 
depression  in  the  plain  ;  but  it  was  adjacent  to  the  Salt  Sea, 
and  was  at  least  near  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. ^  The 
streams  that  anciently  watered  the  plain,  still  attest  the 
accuracy  of  the  sacred  historian  ;  but  the  pits  of  asphaltum 
are  no  longer  to  be  seen.  Did  they  disappear  in  the  catas- 
trophe of  the  plain  ? 

To  this  question  various  circumstances  suggest  an  affirm- 
ative reply.  In  the  lapse  of  centuries  the  accumulations 
of  bitumen  around  the  fountains  and  in  layers,  perhaps  be- 
neath the  soil,  had  of  course  become  great.  We  read,  that 
"  the  Lord  rained  upon  Sodom  and  upon  Gomorrah  brim- 
stone and  fire  from  the  Lord  out  of  heaven ;  and  he  over- 
threw those  cities  and  all  the  plain  ; "  so  that  "  the  smoke 
of  the  country  went  up  as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace."  ^  This 
narrative  is  readily  explained  by  supposing  that  in  a  tempest 
of  thunder  and  lightning,  the  accompaniments  perhaps  of 
an  earthquake  or  of  some  volcanic  action,  or  of  both,  these 
masses  of  bitumen  were  ignited  by  the  lightning,  and  a 
conflagration  produced  which  not  only  destroyed  the  cities, 
but  also  consumed  and  scooped  out  the  surface  of  the  plain 

1  Gen,  xui.  10,*  11.  2  Qen.  xiv.  2,  3,  10.  3  Qen.  xLx.  24, 25,  28. 


THE  DEAD  SEA.  235 

itself;  so  that  the  waters  of  the  lake,  rushing  in,  spread 
themselves  out  over  the  once  fertile  tract.  This  hypothesis 
is  rendered  more  probable  by  the  fact,  that  while  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  lake  has  a  depth  of  more  than  thirteen  hun- 
dred feet,  the  southern  bay  is  nowhere  more  than  twelve  or 
thirteen  feet  deep  ;  and  also  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
masses  of  asphaltum  still  occasionally  thrown  up,  appear  to 
come  from  this  southern  portion  of  the  sea.  In  this  miracu- 
lous overthrow  of  the  plain  and  its  cities,  Zoar,  though  near, 
yet  lying  quite  at  the  base  of  the  eastern  mountains,  was 
readily  spared. ^ 

Such,  we  may  suppose,  was  the  method  of  God's  judgment 
when,  "  turning  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  into 
ashes,  he  condemned  them  with  an  overthrow,  making  them 
an  ensample  unto  those  that  after  should  live  ungodly."  ^ 

That  the  southern  bay  of  the  sea  does  now  thus  occupy  the 
place  of  the  vale  of  Siddim  and  the  fertile  plain,  appears 
further  also  from  the  language  of  the  sacred  writer,  speaking 
of  the  vale  of  Siddim,  which  is  the  Salt  Sea."  Josephus, 
likewise,  referring  doubtless  to  the  same  passage,  says  ex- 
pressly, that  "  upon  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Sodom,  that 
vale  [of  Siddim]  became  the  Lake  Asphaltitis."  ^  He  else- 
where speaks  of  the  country  of  Sodom  as  bordering  on  the 
lake  ;  of  old,  he  says,  it  Avas  a  prosperous  land,  but  being 
burnt  with  lightning,  it  is  now  scorched  throughout.  This 
account  applies  well  to  Usdum ;  the  salt  from  which,  as  also 
from  the  shore,  was  well  known  among  the  ancients  by  the 
name  of  salt  of  Sodom.^ 

1  Gen.  xix.  20,  22.    See  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  187-192  [II.  pp.  601-608]. 

2  2  Pet.  ii.  6. 

3  Gen.  xiv.  3.   Joseph.  Antiq.,  1.  9.   Comp.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  4. 

4  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  a  4.  Galen  de  Simpl.  Med.  Fac,  IV.  p.  19.  Reland, 
Palaestina,  p.  243. 


236 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Apples  of  Sodom.  To  this  same  region  belong  likewise 
those  far-famed  fruits 

"  which  grew 
Near  that  bituminous  lake  where  Sodom  stood." 

Josephus,  after  speaking  of  the  conflagration  of  the  plain,  as 
above,  and  the  yet  remaining  tokens  of  the  divine  fire,  goes 
on  to  say,  that "  there  are  still  to  be  seen  ashes  reproduced  in 
the  fruits  ;  which  indeed  resemble  edible  fruits  in  color,  but 
on  being  plucked  with  the  hands,  are  dissolved  into  smoke 
and  ashes."  ^  On  arriving  at  'Ain  Jidy,  in  1838,  one  of  the 
first  objects  that  attracted  our  attention,  was  a  tree  with 
shigular  fruit,  which  at  once  suggested  to  our  minds  the 
famous  apples  of  Sodom.  This  was  the  'Oslier  of  the  Arabs, 
the  Asclepias  gigantea  v.  procera  of  botanists ;  which  is  found 
in  Arabia  Felix  and  also  in  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia ;  but 
appears  to  be  confined,  in  Palestine,  to  the  borders  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  There  are  several  trees  at  'Ain  Jidy  ;  and  they 
are  frequent  and  of  large  size  on  the  isthmus  of  tlie  penin- 
sula, and  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake.^ 

The  trees  which  we  saw  at  'Ain  Jidy  were  six  or  eight 
inches  in  diameter,  or  from  a  foot  and  a  half  to  two  feet 
round ;  the  height  being  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet.  The  tree 
has  a  grayish,  cork-hke  bark,  with  long,  oval  leaves ;  and,  in 
its  general  appearance  and  character,  might  be  taken  for  a 
gigantic  perennial  species  of  the  milk-weed  or  silk-weed  of 
the  northern  American  States.  Its  leaves  and  flowers  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  latter  plant ;  and  when  broken 
ofi",  it  in  like  manner  discharges  copiously  a  milky  fluid. 
The  fruit  resembles  externally,  a  large,  smooth  apple  or 
orange,  hanging  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  together ;  and 

1  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  4.  8.  4.    Comp.  Tacitus,  Hist.,  5.  G. 

2  L-by  and  Mangles,  pp.  108,  138. 


THE  DE.VD  SEA. 


237 


wlicn  ripe  is  of  a  yellow  color.  It  was,  at  tliat  season,  fair 
and  delicious  to  the  eye,  and  soft  to  the  touch ;  but  on  being 
pressed  or  struck,  it  exploded  with  a  puff,  like  a  bladder  or 
puff-ball,  leaving  in  the  hand  only  the  shreds  of  the  thin  rind 
and  a  few  fibres.  It  is  indeed  filled  chiefly  with  air,  like  a 
bladder,  which  gives  it  the  round  form ;  while  in  the  centre 
a  small  slender  pod  runs  through  it  from  the  stem,  and  is 
connected  by  thin  filaments  with  the  rind.  The  pod  con- 
tains a  small  quantity  of  fine  silky  fibres  with  seeds ;  pre- 
cisely like  the  pod  of  the  silk-weed,  though  hardly  a  tenth 
part  so  large.  The  Arabs  collect  the  silk,  and  twist  it  into 
matches  for  their  guns. 

Comparing  now  the  above  account  of  Josephus,  and  mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  the  marvellous  in  all  popular  reports, 
we  find  in  it  nothing  which  does  not  apply  almost  literally 
to  the  fruit  of  the  'Osher,  as  here  described.  It  is  very  deli- 
cate, and  must  be  handled  with  great  care.  We  attempted 
to  carry  some  of  the  boughs  and  fruit  to  Jerusalem  ;  but 
without  success.^ 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  522  [II.  p.  235].  Seetzen,  in  Zach's  Monatl.  Corresp., 
XVIII.  p.  442.  Reisen,  II.  p.  231  sq.  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  450.  Comp.  Bro 
cardus,  c.  7.  p.  180.   Fulcher  Carnot.,  in  Gesta  Dei,  p.  405. 


238 


PHYSICAL 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY 


LAND. 


SECTION  III. 

FOUNTAINS. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  description  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land  given  by  Moses  to  the  children  of  Israel :  "  For 
the  Lord  thy  God  bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land,  a  land  of 
brooks  of  water,  of  Fouxtaixs  and  depths  that  spring  out  of 
valleys  and  hills."  ^  This  was  spoken  in  contrast  to  the  land 
of  Egypt,  where  there  are  no  fountains  nor  brooks ;  wliile 
Palestine,  in  comparison,  is  truly  a  country  well  watered 
with  living  springs  on  its  hills  and  in  its  valleys.  But 
Moses  was  not  comparing  the  Land  of  Promise  with  other 
mountainous  or  more  occidental  regions,  where  fountains 
and  streams  are  sometimes  still  more  abundant  and  lasting. 

Thus  it  has  happened,  that  sojourners  and  travellers  from 
the  west,  from  Italy,  Germany,  and  England,  have  often 
been  struck  with  the  penury  of  living  waters  in  Palestine 
and  the  apparent  infrequency  of  fountains  in  the  parts  vis- 
ited by  them.  Jerome,  coming  from  Dalmatia  and  Italy, 
and  sojourning  in  Bethlehem,  writes  :  "  In  these  places 
where  we  now  dwell,  except  small  fountains,  all  the  water  is 
from  cisterns  ;  and  if  divine  wrath  should  suspend  the  rains, 
there  is  more  danger  of  thirst  than  of  famine."  ^    In  like 

1  Deut.  viii.  7.    See  above,  p.  142. 

2  Hieronymus,  Comm.  in  Amos  iv.  7:  "In  his  enim  locis  inquibus  nunc  elcgi- 
mus,  praeter  parvos  fontes  omnes  cisternarum  aquae  sunt;  et  si  imbres  divina 
ira  suspenderit,  magis  sitis  quara  famis  periculura  est." 


FOUNTAINS. 


239 


manner  Rosenmiieller  dwells  on  the  scarcity  of  living  waters 
in  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  refers  to  the  traveller  Korte,  who 
found  only  eight  or  ten  copious  fountains  in  the  whole  coun- 
try ;  and  the  streamlets  from  these  did  not  flow  for  more 
than  eighty  or  a  hundred  paces. ^  This  testimony  is  doubt- 
less true,  as  to  what  Korte  himself  saw  ;  and  probably  there 
have  been  travellers  who  liave  seen  still  fewer  fountains.  It 
is  also  true,  that  the  streams  from  many  fountains  become 
dry  in  summer,  like  the  beds  of  the  winter-brooks  ;  and  that 
the  smaller  fountains  themselves  sometimes  disappear  dur- 
ing the  summer  season,  in  consequence  of  the  long  absence 
of  rain.  Still,  it  will  not  be  hard  to  show  that  the  language 
of  Moses  above  quoted  is  entirely  correct,  as  to  the  many 
fountains  of  Palestine  as  compared  with  Egypt. 

There  are,  in  the  Old  Testament,  quite  a  number  of  cities 
which  take  their  names  from  fountains  in  or  near  them  ;  in 
the  English  Version,  the  Hebrew  ^Ai?i  (fountains)  is  given 
by  En.  Thus  we  have  Eii-g-ecli,  now  'Ain  Jidy^  with  its 
noble  fountain  ;  En-gannim,  now  Jenin,  with  a  fountain 
equally  noble  ;  En-dor,  opposite  Tabor  ;  also  En-gannim,  in 
Judah,  not  yet  identified ;  -  En-haddah  in  Issachar,  not  yet 
identified,  but  apparently  not  far  from  En-gannim ;  ^  En-ha- 
zor,  not  yet  identified,  but  named  with  Hazor  and  Kedesh 
of  Naphthali ;  and  probably  not  far  from  the  Huleh ;  *  En- 
mishpat,  or  Kadesh-barnea  ;  En-eglaim,  not  yet  identified.-^ 
Further,  the  word  ^ Ain  itself  stands  as  the  name  of  a  city 
in  Simeon,  not  yet  identified.^  We  find  likewise  Anem, 
'  two  fountains,'  a  city  of  Issachar,  the  same  with  En-gan- 

1  Rosenm.,  Bibl.  Geograph.,  II.  i.  p.  214.   Korte,  pp.  139,  378. 

2  Josh.  XV.  34.  3  Josh.  xix.  21. 

*  Josh.  xix.  37.  5  Ezek.  xlvii.  10. 

«  Josh.  xxi.  16;  1  Chron.  iv.  32. 


240 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


nim  ;  ^  also  Enam  and  Anim,  both  signifying  *  two  fountains,' 
and  both  in  Jiidah  ;  the  first  not  yet  identified,  and  the  lat- 
ter probably  now  el-Ghuwein.^  In  the  New  Testament,  the 
name  Enon^  where  John  was  baptizing,  is  a  plural  form, 
signifying  '  fountains ; '  where,  of  course,  there  was  much 
water  for  the  supply  of  the  multitudes. ^ 

Scripture  also  speaks  of  several  fountains  bearing  their 
own  proper  names,  or  else  named  from  an  adjacent  place. 
Such  arc  En-shemesh,  on  the  border  of  Judali  and  Benja- 
min, not  improbably  the  present  'Ain  el-Hand,  in  Wady  el- 
Hand,  half  an  hour  east  of  Bethany,  known  also  as  the  foun- 
tain of  the  apostles  ;  *  En-Rogel  and  Siloam,  in  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat;  JE'w-^Za/tom  (Engl.  Dragon-well),  perhaps  the 
same  witli  Gihon,  on  the  west  of  Jerusalem ;  ^  En-Harod 
(Engl,  well  of  Harod),  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  perhaps  a 
place  of  fountains  and  mills,  east  of  'Ain  Jalud  ;^  En-tappuah, 
belonging  to  the  city  Tappuah.'^  There  arc  also  mentioned : 
a  fountain  at  Jezreel,  now  'Ain  Jalud;^  one  at  Jericho, 
where  Elisha  healed  the  waters,  now  'Ain  es-Sultan ;  ^  and 
the  '  fountain  of  the  water  of  Nephtoah,'  on  the  border  be- 
tween Judah  and  Benjamin,  west  of  Jerusalem,  now  prob- 
ably 'Ain  Karim.i^  Josephus  also  speaks  of  springs  at  Etam, 
now  tlrtas,  with  its  fine  fountain  ;  and  mentions  likewise 
the  fountain  of  Capernaum.^^ 

1  1  Chron.  vi.  73  [58] ;  comp.  Josh.  xix.  21,  xxi.  29. 

^  Enam,  Josh.  xv.  34;  Anim,  Josh.  xv.  50.  Comp.  Biblical  Researches,  11. 
p.  204  [XL  P.G25.] 

8  John  ii.  23.  *  Josh.  xv.  7,  xviii.  17.  E.  Smith's  manuscript  Notes. 
*  Neh.  iii.l3.                  «  Judg.  vii.  1.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  338. 

7  Josh.  xvii.  7,  comp.  v.  8.  «  i  Sam.  xxix.  1. 

9  2  Kings  ii.  21. 

10  Josh.  XV.  9,  xviii.  15.   See  above,  pp.  45,  46. 

n  1  Chron.  iv.  32;  2  Chron.  xi.  6.   Joseph.  Antiq.,  8.  7.  3. 
12  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  8. 


FOUNTAINS. 


241 


Besides  these  fountains,  referred  to  in  Scripture,  there  are, 
at  the  present  day,  very  many  others,  few  of  which  compara- 
tively have  been  seen  or  reported  by  travellers.  It  is  to  be 
regretted,  tliat  so  little  attention  has  generally  been  given 
by  travellers,  ourselves  among  the  rest,  to  ascertain  the 
manner  in  which  each  village  is  supplied  with  water.  In  the 
case  of  many  villages,  the  word  ^Ain  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
Arabic  name,  and  would,  a  priori^  imply  the  existence  of  a 
fountain  in  every  such  place.  But  in  many  cases  of  this 
class,  this  docs  not  hold  true.  Thus  the  ancient  Beth-she- 
mesh  is  now  'Ain  Shems,  but  there  is  no  fountain  near  ;  at 
'Ain  Sinai,  north  of  Gophna,  there  is  a  well,  but  no  foun- 
tain ;  and  at'  Ain  Yebrdd,  north  of  el-Bireh,  no  fountain  is  re- 
ported. Still,  an  enumeration  of  the  fountains  known  to 
exist  in  any  district,  which  has  been  tolerably  explored,  will 
serve  to  show  that  there  are  many  more  of  these  sources  of 
living  water  than  has  usually  been  supposed. 

We  take  the  environs  of  Jerusalem,  in  a  circuit  of  eight 
or  ten  miles  around  the  city  ;  but  jiot  including  the  foun- 
tains of  the  city  itself.  Beginning  at  Beitin  {Bethel),  on  the 
great  road  north,  we  find  there  two  fountains  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  ancient  reservoir ;  and  on  the  way  to  el-Bireli 
(^Beeroth),  there  are  two  more.^  El-Bireh  has  its  fountains; 
and  there  is  one  near  Jufnah,  in  the  deep  valley  northwest. 
Passing  now  to  the  w^est  of  the  great  road,  there  is  at  el-Jib 
(  Giheon)  a  fountain  in  a  cavern  ;  on  the  hill  of  Neby  Sam- 
wil  there  are  several  small  sources  below  the  summit  on  both 
sides ;  and  Kuryet  el-'Enab  has  also  its  fountain.  Return- 

1  For  the  fountains  here  enumerated,  the  reader  is  referred,  pjenerally,  to  tho 
Biblical  Researches  and  Later  Biblical  Researches,  Index,  'Ain,  etc.;  Tobler's 
Dritte  "Wanderung,  Index,  'Ain,  etc.;  Barclay's  City  of  the  Great  King,  pp. 
544-560. 

31 


242  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

ing  to  the  great  valley,  "Wady  Beit  Haiima,  we  find  quite  a 
number  of  fountains  along  its  sides ;  as,  on  the  west,  at  the 
ruin  Beit  Tulma,  at  KulSnieh,  and  at  Sataf ;  and,  on  the  east, 
'Ain  Lifta,  'Ain  er-B,awas,  'Ain  Karim  (^Nephtoali) ,  'Ain  el- 
Habis  (St.  John's  in  the  Desert),  one  at  Khirbet  el-Lauz,  and 
'Ain  Shukaf  below  Sataf.  Passing  from  Jerusalem  down 
Wady  el-Werd,  we  find  'Ain  Yalo,  'Ain  Haniyeli  (St.  Phil- 
ip's), one  at  Welejeh,  and  the  copious  source  at  Bittir;  as 
also  one  at  el-Husan  on  the  hills  south.  Just  north  of  el- 
Khudr  is  the  small  source  of  Hand  Kibriyan ;  above  Solo- 
mon's Pools  is  the  sunken  fountain  that  feeds  them  ;  twenty- 
five  minutes  below  the  same  pools  is  the  very  copious  source 
at  Urtas  ;  and  further  south  is  the  small  fountain  at  Beit 
Faghar,  the  ancient  Phagor  or  Phogor.  On  the  east  of  the 
great  road,  beginning  at  the  north,  we  have  the  large  foun- 
tain in  Wady  Farah,  below  Hizmeh  ;  ^  'Ain  el-Hand  (^Eti- 
shemesli)^  east  of  Bethany  ;  a  small  fountain  at  Sur  Bahil ; 
and  the  fine  one  at  Tekoa. 

Here,  then,  are  no  less  than  thirty  permanent  fountains 
of  living  water  ;  some  of  them  large  and  copious,  as  at  Lifta, 
'Ain  Karim,  Urtas,  and  in  Wady  Farah.  Several  others 
are  reported,  but  smaller  and  probably  less  permanent. 
Now,  while  it  may  be  true,  that  no  other  district  in  Pales- 
tine has  been  so  fully  explored  ;  and  therefore  it  may  not  be 
possible,  in  any  other  tract  of  like  extent,  to  name  so  many 
fountains  ;  yet  the  preceding  enumeration  shows  that  Moses 
liad  sufficient  ground  to  speak  of  Palestine,  in  comparison 
with  Egypt,  as  a  land  of  fountains. 

In  further  speaking  of  the  fountains  of  Palestine,  we  name 
only  the  more  important  ones,  following  our  usual  order. 


1  Barclay,  p.  558. 


FOUNTAINS  IN  OR  NEAR  THE  WESTERN  PLAIN. 


243 


I.   FOUNTAINS  IN  OR  NEAR  THE  WESTERN  PLAIN. 

On  the  way  south  from  .Tyre,  after  passing  Ras  el-Abyad, 
there  is  a  fine  source  on  the  shore  near  the  remains  of 
the  ancient  Alexandroschoene  ;  and  after  crossing  E,as  en- 
Nakurali,  there  are  copious  fountains  at  'Ain  el-Mush eirifeh 
near  the  southern  base.  At  el-Kabireh  in  the  plain,  is  the 
source,  whence  Jezzar  Pasha  supplied  water  for  'Akka  by 
his  aqueduct.  Southeast  of  'Akka,  at  the  extremity  of  one 
of  the  projecting  hills,  a  fountain  furnishes  water  to  the  vil- 
lage of  Birweh ;  and  there  are  probably  other  fountains  at 
the  foot  of  the  more  northern  hills.  Still  further  south,  in  the 
plain,  are  the  large  fountains  at  Tell  Kurdany,  driving  several 
mills,  and  forming  the  source  of  the  river  Na'man  or  Be- 
lus.^  At  the  base  of  Carmel,  where  it  is  skirted  by  the  same 
plain  of  'Akka,  are  the  extensive  permanent  sources  of  the 
river  el-Mukutta',  the  continuation  or  perennial  lower,  part 
of  the  Kishon.2 

On  the  southwestern  slope  of  Carmel,  the  fertility  and 
beauty  of  the  region  would  seem  to  indicate  frequent  foun- 
tains ;  and  a  fine  one  is  noted  at  Um  esh-Shukaf.^  The 
fact  that  there  are  several  permanent  streams  on  the  north 
and  south  of  Cesaraea,  would  also  seem  to  imply  fountains 
along  the  base  of  the  eastern  hills  ;  but  none  are  reported. 
At  Ras  el-' Ain,  near  Mejdel  Yaba,  northeast  of  Yafa,  are  the 
great  fountains  of  the  river  'Aujeh,  already  described.*  At 
Yalo  QAjalon)  is  a  fountain  which  supplies  the  village  ;  and 
at  'Amwas  (^Nicopolis)  there  are  two  sources  of  living 
water.^ 

1  See  above,  p.  187.  2  See  above,  p.  190. 

*  Van  de  Velde,  Mem.,  p.  107.  •*  See  above,  p.  193. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  144, 146. 


244 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


The  village  of  Sur'ah  (  Zorali)  is  supplied  by  a  noble  foun- 
tain, on  the  low  ground,  fifteen  minutes  north ;  it  is  walled 
up  square  with  large  hewn  stones,  and  gushes  over  with  fine 
water,  sending  a  brook  down  the  valley.  In  1852  we  saw 
twelve  women,  each  with  a  jar  of  water  from  this  fountain 
on  her  head,  toiling  up  the  steep  ascent  to  the  village.  In 
the  same  manner,  in  ancient  times,  the  mother  of  Samson 
probably  bore  water  from  this  fountain  to  her  home.^ 

At  'AUar  es-Sifia,  east  of  Beit  Nettif,  is  a  fine  fountain, 
watering  a  tract  of  gardens  and  fruit  trees.^  Another,  'Ain 
Faris,  exists  at  Nuhalin,  further  east.^ 

In  all  probability  there  are  similar  fountains  further  south, 
among  these  lower  hills  along  the  plain  ;  but  they  are  not 
reported.. 

n.    FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  JORDAN. 

North  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  Kedesh  of  Naphthali 
are  two  copious  fountains,  one  south  and  the  other  north  of 
the  village.  Just  below  the  fortress  of  Tibnin,  in  the  north, 
is  'Ain  el-Mizrab.  At  some  distance  from  Ramah  of  Asher 
is  a  fountain,  from  which  the  village  is  supplied  in  summer.* 
Near  el- Jish  there  are  small  springs ;  also  a  large  one  south 
of  MeirSn ;  and  one  is  reported  at  el-Bukeia,  west  of  the 
mountain.^ 

The  large  fountain  of  Seffurieli  is  celebrated  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  crusades ;  it  is  situated  nearly  half  an  hour  south- 

1  Judg.  xiii.  2-24.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  153. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  14  [IL  p.  340]. 

3  Tobler,  Dritte  Wanderung,  p.  115. 

4  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  3G6,  377.   Ibid.,  p.  57.   Ibid.,  p.  63. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  446  [III.  p.  369].  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  73. 
Ibid.,  p.  76. 


FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  JORDAN.  245. 


east  of  the  village,  towards  Nazareth  ;  and  by  it  the  hosts  of 
the  crusaders  and  of  the  Muslims  alternately  encamped.^ 
At  Nazareth  is  the  small  public  fountain,  which  supplies  the 
village  ;  where  the  females  are  seen  waiting  their  turn  to  fill 
their  jars.  The  source  itself  is  under  the  Greek  church. ^ 
At  Hattin  a  fine  fountain  bursts  forth  under  the  western  end 
of  the  Tell.  Within  Khan  et-Tujjar  there  is  a  spring  of 
water ;  and  a  larger  fountain  exists  five  or  ten  minutes  fur- 
ther south,  which  sends  a  stream  of  water  down  the  valley.^ 

In  and  around  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  In  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  the  great  plain,  in  passing  eastward  near  the 
base  of  the  northern  hills,  several  small  streams  occur,  im- 
plying fountains  on  the  left.  In  the  plain  itself,  between 
Tell  Shemmam  and  Lejjun,  there  are  small  fountains  and 
marshy  tracts  on  both  sides  of  the  Kishon.^  From  Lejjun 
northwestward.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  travelled  in  1844,  near  the 
base  of  the  hills  on  the  left ;  he  crossed  several  small 
streams  and  saw  two  or  three  copious  fountains,  the  names 
of  which  he  did  not  learn. ^ 

At  Solam  (^Shuneni),  on  the  western  end  of  Little  Ilcrmon 
is  a  small  fountain.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel 
are  two  or  three  large  ones,  sending  forth  the  stream  which 
flows  down  that  valley.  One  rises  just  under  the  rocky  wall 
below  Zerin  (^Jezreel),  and  supplies  that  place  ;  it  is  called 
'Ain  el-Meiyiteh.  Twenty  minutes  further  down  the  valley 
is  'Ain  Jalud,  a  very  large  fountain,  flowing  out  from  under, 
a  sort  of  cavern  in  the  wall  of  conglomerate  rock,  which 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  345  [III.  p.  203J.    Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  11'^. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  336  [III.  p.  188]. 

8  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  378  [III.  p.  249].   Ibid.,  IL  p.  369  [HI.  p.  236]. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  115,  116. 

*  Manuscript  Journal.  ,  >  i 


24G 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


here  forms  the  northern  base  of  Mount  Gilboa.  The  water 
is  excellent,  and  spreads  out  at  once  into  a  fine  limpid  pool, 
forty  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  in  which  are  great  numbers  of 
small  fish.  From  this  reservoir,  a  stream  sufficient  to  turn  a 
mill  flows  off  eastward  down  the  valley.  This  is,  no  doubt, 
the  ancient '  fountain  in  Jezreel,'  where  Saul  and  Jonathan 
pitched  before  their  last  fatal  battle  ;  and  where,  too,  in  the 
days  of  the  crusades,  Saladin  and  the  Christians  successively 
encamped. 1  About  an  hour  further  east  are  two  fountains, 
one  on  each  side  of  Tell  Sheikh  Hasan,  near  the  mountain ; 
that  on  the  west,  called  er-E,ahhaniyeh,  is  the  largest,  and 
sends  a  mill-stream  down  the  valley  to  join  the  Jalud.^ 

On  the  southern  side  of  the  great  plain,  are  several  foun- 
tains. One  is  at  Jenin,  having  its  source  in  the  hills  back 
of  the  place,  and  is  brought  down  so  as  to  issue  in  a  noble 
stream  in  the  midst  of  the  village.  It  is  built  up  with  plain 
but  good  masonry ;  and  the  water  flows  off  northwest  to- 
wards the  Kishon.3  There  is  also  the  fountain  of  Lejjun,  a 
short  distance  southwest  of  the  ruins ;  which  sends  down  a 
stream,  at  first  eastwardly,  with  several  mills  upon  it.  The 
brook  then  passes  off  into  the  plain,  where  it  goes  to  join  the 
Kishon,  of  which  it  is  the  largest  arm.^ 

8outh  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  the  southern  base  of 
Tell  Dothan,  in  the  plain  of  Dothan,  is  a  fountain,  called  el- 
Huf  ireh.^  There  is  likewise  a  fine  one  at  Jeba' ;  and  several 
smaller  ones  near  the  village  of  Fendekumieh.^ 

The  city  of  Nabulus  (^Shechem)  is  more  abundantly  watered 

1  1  Sam.  xxix.  L    Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  323,  324  [HL  pp.  1G7,  108]. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  338.   Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  139. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  3ir)  [HL  p.  154] . 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  112. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  122. 

6  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  312  [HI.  pp.  150,  151]. 


FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  JORDAN.  247 

•by  fountains  and  wells  of  living  water,  than  any  other  spot 
in  Palestine.  Besides  the  three  fountains  east  of  the  town, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  valley,  the  inhabitants  boast  of  not 
less  than  eighty  overflowing  springs  in  and  around  the  city. 
Very  many  of  these,  probably,  are  nothing  more  than  smaller 
branches  from  larger  fountains,  brought  down  by  under- 
ground conduits  to  particular  points  of  the  city.  In  several 
of  the  streets  water  is  constantly  flowing.  The  water  of  all 
the  fountains  in  and  just  around  the  city  runs  westward 
towards  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  forms  a  brook  with  many 
mills  along  the  valley  ;  which  late  in  April,  1852,  was  flow- 
ing as  far  as  to  'Anebta.^ 

The  main  fountain  within  the  city  is  'Ain  el-Kariun,  which 
issues  from  under  an  ancient  vault,  to  which  there  is  a  de- 
scent by  a  long  flight  of  steps.  The  water  is  carried  by  sub- 
terranean channels  to  several  of  the  mosques,  and  many  pri- 
vate houses.  The  water  of  this  and  the  other  city  fountains 
are  again  collected  in  the  western  part  of  the  town,  where 
they  drive  a  mill  both  in  summer  and  winter,  and  then  go  to 
water  the  gardens  west  of  the  city. 

Outside  of  the  city  of  Nabulus  there  are  on  the  south 
three  copious  fountains,  Ras  el-' Ain,  'Aiii.  el-Murasrasu,  and 
'Ain  el-'Asal ;  the  two  former  upon  the  skirts  of  Gerizim,  in 
or  near  the  ravine  which  here  comes  down  from  the  moun- 
tain ;  the  latter  lower  down,  among  the  gardens  in  this 
quarter.  West  of  the  city  are  'Ain  el-Kasab,  in  the  bottom 
af  the  valley  near  the  western  gate  ;  'Ain  Beit  lima  fifteen 
minutes  further  west  at  the  base  of  Ebal ;  and  a  smaller 
fountain  at  Rafidia. 

All  these  fountains  belong  to  the  western  slope  of  the 

1  For  an  account  of  the  fountains  in  and  around  Nabulus,  see  Rosen,  in  Zeit- 
schr.  der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  1860,  XIV.  p.  636  sq. 


248 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


"watershed  of  the  valley,  on  which  Nabulus  is  situated.  The 
abundance  of  water  lias  given  occasion  for  extensive  gardens 
and  orchards  on  the  south  and  west  of  the  city,  comprising 
a  great  variety  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  presenting  a 
scene  of  luxuriant  verdure  elsewhere  unparalleled  in  the 
Holy  Land. 

East  of  the  city  the  ground  slopes  eastward,  and  is  at  first 
hard  and  stony,  and  planted  with  olive  trees.  Twenty  min- 
utes from  the  city  is  'Ain  Defneh,  gushing  up  in  the  middle 
of  the  valley,  furnished  with  a  reservoir,  surrounded  by  a 
garden,  of  four  or  five  acres,  and  sending  forth  a  stream  large 
enough  for  a  mill.  In  the  village  Belatah,  half  an  hour  be- 
low the  city  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  mouth  of  the 
valley,  is  a  large  fountain,  'Ain  Belatah,  hardly  a  bow-shot 
distant  from  Jacob's  well ;  it  is  very  copious,  and  its  stream 
turns  a  mill  just  below.  'Ain  'Askar  belongs  to  the  deserted 
village  'Askar  on  the  southeast  corner  of  Ebal,  also  about 
half  an  hour  distant  from  Nabulus.  This  fountain  is  smaller  ; 
the  water  issues  from  a  long  low  vault  running  in  under 
Ebal,  and  flows  into  a  broken  reservoir.  The  vault  and 
reservoir  are  of  ancient  workmanship.-  The  water  of  all 
these  three  fountains  goes  to  join  the  water-bed  of  the  plain 
Mukhna,  which  runs  northward  to  Wady  Fari'a,  and  so  to 
the  Jordan.! 

Beyond  the  Mukhna,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  lit- 
tle plain  which  there  runs  up  eastward,  is  the  village  of  Sa- 
lim,  with  two  sources  of  living  water ;  one  in  a  cavern,  and 
the  other  a  running  fountain  called  'Ain  Kebir,  '  the  great 
fountain.'  ^  Further  southeast  beyond  the  hills  is  the  small 
source  called  'Ain  Yanun ;  and  at  Daumeh,  near  the  brow 

1  On  all  these  fountains  see  Rosen,  as  referred  to  in  the  preceding  note. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  298. 


FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  WEST  OF  JORDAN.  249 


of  the  Jordan  valley,  is  a  village  fountain.^  Near  Deir  Es- 
tieh,  southwest  of  Nabulus,  several  fountains  spring  up  in 
the  bottom  of  Wady  Kanah,  whieh  is  there  wide  and  culti- 
vated.2  At  Khan  el-Lubban  on  the  great  northern  road  is 
a  fine  fountain  and  stream;  and  near  Serlun  (^SJdloli),  not 
far  southeast,  is  likewise  a  living  spring.^  Proceeding  on  the 
great  road  towards  Jerusalem,  we  find  the  small  source  'Ain 
el-Haramiyeh,  two  hours  north  of  el-Bireh.^ 

We  come  now  to  the  fountains,  thirty  in  number,  already 
enumerated,  within  eight  or  ten  miles  of  the  Holy  City ;  ex- 
tending from  Beitm  and  el-Bireli  in  the  north  to  Tekoa  and 
Beit  Faghur  in  the  south.^ 

Further  south  few  fountains  are  known,  except  on  and 
just  around  Hebron.  Two  hours  north  of  Hebron,  by  the 
side  of  the  great  road,  near  Beth-zur,  is  the  small  fountain 
ed-Dirweh,  which  an  early  tradition  reports  as  the  place  of 
Philip's  baptism  of  the  eunuch ;  just  by  it  are  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  church.^  An  hour  west  of  Hebron,  on  the 
way  to  Dura,  is  the  small  fountain  'Ain  Nunkur,  and  another 
place  of  springs  beyond.  These  waters  are  collected  and 
conducted  to  the  valley  north,  where  they  issue  from  a  sub- 
terranean channel,  and  are  used  to  irrigate  gardens.  'Ain 
Nunkur  is  a  little  east  of  south  from  Dewirban  (Z)e6iV),and 
may  have  some  relation  to  the  "  upper  and  nether  springs," 
which  Caleb  gave  to  his  daughter."^  East  of  Dewirban  in 
Wady  el-Joz  is  another  small  spring,  'Ain  el-Bassa. 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  293,  297. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  135. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  2G9,  271  [HI.  pp.  86,  90]. 

*  Porter's  Handbook,  pp.  327,  328.  5  See  above,  pp.  241,  242. 

6  Acts  viii.  38  sq.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  277. 

'  Josh.  XV.  19.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  213  [III.  p.  2J.    Rosen,  in  Zeitschr. 
der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  XI.  p.  5G. 
32 


250 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Ill  Hebron  itself  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  Rosen 
marks  on  Lis  Plan  no  less  than  twelve  fountains,  mostly 
small,  but  some  of  them  tolerably  copious.  Such  are,  'Ain 
el-Jcdid  on  the  hill  west  of  the  town,  an  unfailing  spring  of 
fine  water  in  a  vault  of  ancient  masonry,  to  which  there  is  a 
descent  by  steps  ;  ^  'Ain  cl-Kaslikaleli  just  out  of  the  city  on 
the  north,  the  waters  of  which  are  carried  by  pipes  to  the 
Haram  ;  -  'Ain  Sara  further  north,  near  the  Jerusalem  road  ; 
and  'Ain  Kena'a,  still  more  to  the  north  and  northwest,  near 
Kliurbet  en-Nusarah.-'^ 

In  spite  of  its  many  living  fountains,  it  would  appear  that 
Hebron  was  dependent  to  a  great  extent  on  its  rock-hewn 
cisterns.  Many  of  these  still  remain,  and  some  are  of  great 
extent. 

in.   FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NEAR  THE  GHOR. 

The  great  fountains  of  the  Jordan  at  Hasbeiya,  Tell 
el-Kady,  Banias,  and  elsewhere,  have  already  been  described. 
The  region  of  the  Ghor  has  been,  perhaps,  less  fully  explored 
than  any  other  part  in  respect  to  its  sources  of  water ;  and 
many  springs  doubtless  exist,  which  have  never  been  re- 
ported. The  main  fountains  burst  forth  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  on  each  side  of  the  Ghor. 

West  of  the  Jordan.  On  the  west  side  of  the  basin  of  the 
Huleh,  several  fountains  issue  at  the  foot  of  the  hills ;  the 
streams  from  which  run  into  the  marsh.  That  called  'Amu- 
diyeli  is  of  considerable  size  ;  but  'Ain  Belateh  is  much 

1  Rosen,  in  Zeitsch.  der  Deutschen  raorg.  GescUschaft,  XII.  p.  480.  Biblical 
Researches,  II.  p.  74  [II.  p.  433]. 

2  Rosen,  in  Zcitscli.  der  Deutsclien  mors-  Gesellschaft,  XII.  p.  481.  Not  'Ain 
Eskali,  as  Van  do  Vclde  has  it,  from  which  he  makes  out  the  ancient  name  i's/icoZ. 
See  above,  p.  121. 

8  Rosen,  in  Zeitsch.  der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  XII.  pp.  485,  486. 


FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NEAR  THE  GHOR. 


251 


larger,  half  an  hour  further  south,  and  an  hour  north  of 
Melluhah.^  At  the  latter  spot,  'xV.in  el-Mellahah  is  quite 
large,  and  forms  a  pool  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more  in  diame- 
ter, the  water  from  which  drives  several  mills,  and  flows  to 
the  lake  at  its  northwestern  corner,  perhaps  a  mile  distant. 
The  water  is  brackish,  and  slightly  warm.^ 

At  several  of  the  villages  lying  along  on  the  side  of  the 
western  hills  further  south,  are  small  fountains  ;  as  at  Mu- 
ghar  and  Kuba'a.^ 

There  are  several  important  fountains  along  the  western 
shore  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  The  northernmost  cluster  of 
these  is  at  et-Ta.bighah  (^Bethsaidd) ,  now  as  of  old  a  place 
of  fishermen.  There  are  here  several  large  sources  bursting 
forth  from  the  foot  of  the  hill  just  back  of  the  village ;  their  wa- 
ter, too,  is  brackish  and  slightly  warm.  It  is  used  to  turn  one 
or  two  mills  ;  and  there  are  several  others  in  ruins.  Around 
the  main  fountain  there  is  an  ancient  Roman  reservoir,  oc- 
tagonal in  form  and  of  great  solidity,  but  now  in  ruins.  It 
was  obviously  built  in  order  to  raise  the  water  to  a  certain 
height  for  an  aqueduct.  The  head  of  water  was  sufficient  to 
carry  it  around  the  point  of  the  opposite  hill,  wiiere  there  is 
a  channel  cut  in  the  rock,  and  so  into  the  northern  part  of 
the  plain  el-Ghuweir,  or  Gennesareth,  for  irrigation.  The 
aqueduct  was  probably  of  wood  ;  no  trace  of  it  now  remains. 
Just  west  of  the  mills,  near  the  shore,  is  a  smaller  brackish 
fountain,  enclosed  by  a  wall  or  small  reservoir,  and  called 
Tannur  Eyub,  '  Job's  oven.'  * 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  435  [III.  p.  341].  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  I. 
p.  394. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  435  [III.  p.  341].  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  1. 
p.  398. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  3G2,  3G3. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  405  [III.  p.  20C].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  345. 


252 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


A  good  half-mile  south  of  et-Tabighah,  just  at  the  south- 
ern base  of  the  rocky  promontory  or  bluff  above  mentioned, 
and  at  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  fine  plain  el-Ghuweir, 
the  Gennesareth  of  Josephus,  is  the  copious  spring  'Ain  et- 
Tm,  close  by  the  ruined  Khan  Minyeh,  and  near  to  the  heaps 
of  rubbish  and  ruins  whicli  mark  the  site  of  Capernaum. 
The  fountain  sends  forth  an  abundance  of  sweet  and  pleasant 
water,  neither  brackish  nor  warm.  It  is  so  near  the  lake, 
that  when  the  latter  is  full,  it  sets  up  nearly  or  quite  to  the 
fountain.  The  tract  around  the  latter  was  covered,  in  May, 
1852,  with  hixuriant  clover.^  This  appears  to  be  the  foun- 
tain which,  according  to  Josephus,  was  called  Kapharnaum  ; 
and  by  all  analogy  it  must  have  been  the  fountain  of  the 
place  which  he  elsewhere  calls  Kepharnome  (Capernaum). 
The  place  and  the  fountain  bore  the  same  name,  and  be- 
longed together  ;  and  the  latter  was  in  the  plain  of  Gennesa- 
reth, and  was  held  to  be  a  vein  of  the  Nile.^  This  argument 
is  conclusive  to  show  that  Capernaum  was  in  the  same  plain, 
and  was  situated  here  at  Khan  Minyeh  ;  and  not  at  Tell 
Hum,  as  some  suppose.  There  is  no  fountain  whatever  at 
Tell  Hum,  nor  within  two  miles  of  it. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  same  plain  el-Ghuweir,  at  the 
base  of  the  hills,  a  little  west  of  north  from  Mejdel,  is  the 
large  'Ain  el-Mudauwarah,  or  *  Round  Fountain.'  It  is 
enclosed  by  a  low  wall  of  hewn  stones,  forming  an  oval  res- 
ervoir more  than  fifty  feet  in  diameter.  The  water  in  it  is 
perhaps  two  feet  deep,  beautifully  limpid  and  sweet,  bubbling 
up  and  flowing  out  rapidly  in  a  large  stream  to  water  the 
plain  below.3 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  344. 

2  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  8.   Vita,  §  72.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  350. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  400  [III.  p.  283]. 


FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NILVE  THE  GIIOR. 


253 


Halfway  between  Mcjdel  and  Tiberias,  a  little  Wady  breaks 
down  to  the  lake,  and  forms  a  small  space  of  arable  plain 
along  the  shore,  which  is  tilled  as  a  garden.  In  the  lower 
part,  just  by  the  beach,  is  a  cluster  of  five  or  six  fountains, 
one  of  which  is  quite  large  and  copious.  The  water  is  clear, 
slightly  brackish,  and  also  slightly  warm.  The  place  is  called 
'Ain  el-Barideh,  '  Cold  Spring,'  in  distinction  from  the  hot 
springs  south  of  Tiberias.  Another  name  is  Fuliych.  Each  of 
the  fountains  was  in  ancient  times  enclosed  by  a  wall  of  stone, 
or  round  reservoir,  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep,  and  some  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter,  in  which  the  water  rose  to  the  top  and 
overflowed.  In  1838,  two  of  these  enclosures  were  in  tolera- 
ble preservation.  For  what  purpose  this  head  of  water  was 
thus  obtained,  whether  for  baths,  or  for  irrigation,  or  for  other 
uses,  cannot  well  be  determined.^ 

The  Hot  Springs  near  the  lake,  thirty-five  minutes  south 
of  Tiberias,  have  already  been  described.^ 

Between  the  lake  and  Beisan  there  are,  doubtless,  foun- 
tains ;  but  they  have  not  been  reported.  At  Beisan  itself, 
th^e  two  brooks  which  tumble  down  the  declivity  at  the  vil- 
lage and  further  south  have  a  slightly  darkish  hue  and  an 
odor  of  sulphur.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  a  sulphur 
spring  not  far  southwest  of  that  place  ;  while  the  abundance 
of  water  and  water-courses  further  west,  implies  a  marsh  and 
perhaps  ponds  in  the  same  quarter.^  The  plain  of  the  Ghor 
itself,  opposite  Beisan,  is  full  of  fountains  and  rivulets,  mak- 
ing it  in  some  parts  almost  a  marsh.^  In  the  same  plain 
further  south,  we  ourselves  in  1852  fell  in  with  no  less  than 
five  fountains,  'Ain  Mak-huz,  'Ain  ed-Deir,  the  source  at 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  396  [III.  p.  277]. 

2  Sec  above,  p.  205.  3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  327,  336. 
^  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  325. 


254 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Tell  Ridghah,  'Ain  el-Beida,  and  the  noble  fountain  at  the 
foot  of  the  low  bluff  of  Sakut,  surrounded  by  fig  trees.^ 

In  Wady  Malih,  some  distance  west  of  where  it  enters  the 
Gh6r,  though  not  far  above  the.  level  of  the  latter,  there  are 
rather  copious  salt  springs,  giving  name  to  the  Wady.  The 
water  is  blood-warm  (98°  F.)  and  quite  salt ;  and  a  fetid  odor 
is  perceptible.^ 

There  is  a  fine  spring  in  the  Ker^wa,  north  of  Kurn  Sur- 
tabeh.3 

Just  south  of  the  Kiirn  is  'xiin  Fusail  in  the  valley  of  the 
same  name,  some  distance  above  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Phasaslis.  The  fine  spring  is  overshaded  by  wild  fig  trees 
and  shrubs  of  various  kinds ;  and  in  May,  1852,  the  water 
rippled  down  the  valley  as  far  as  to  the  Tell  and  ruins  of 
Fusail,  where  it  was  lost  in  irrigating  the  gardens.*  At 
'Aujeh,  too,  further  south,  a  fountain  is  reported.^ 

On  the  soutliern  brink  of  Wady  Nawa'imeh,  fifteen  min- 
utes below  where  it  issues  as  a  deep  ravine  from  the  western 
cliffs,  is  the  cluster  of  fountains  known  as  'Ain  Duk.  Here 
are  two  very  copious  sources,  besides  other  smaller  ones,  all 
of  fine  limpid  water.  The  waters  naturally  flow  down  Wady 
Nawa'imeh.  A  large  portion  of  them  do  so  still ;  and  there  is 
an  aqueduct  further  down,  with  pointed  arches,  which  once 
served  to  distribute  them  over  that  part  of  the  plain.  But 
the  waters  of  the  highest  and  largest  fountain  are  carried  off 
towards  the  south-southeast  by  an  artificial  channel  along 
the  base  of  the  mountain,  for  nearly  an  hour,  and  then,  by 
a  deep  cut  through  the  low  ridge,  were  formerly  carried 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  310,  313-315. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  308. 

3  Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  124. 

4  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  294.   Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  122. 
«  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  568  [IL  p.  303]. 


FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NEAR  THE  GHOR. 


255 


upon  the  '  Sugar  mills,'  so  called,  the  only  remaining  token 
of  the  former  extensive  cultivation  of  sugar  ;  and  were  thence 
distributed  to  different  parts  of  the  lower  plain.  One  aque- 
duct with  pointed  arches,  now  dry,  carried  these  waters  across 
Wady  Kelt,  and  far  southwest  of  Jericho.  The  stream  from 
the  fountain  is  at  first  six  or  eight  feet  wide,  and  a  foot  and  a 
half  deep.  Here  doubtless  was  situated  the  ancient  castle  of 
Doch.i 

Fifteen  minutes  east  of  the  Sugar  mills,  and  thirty -five 
minutes  northwesterly  from  the  present  village  of  Jericho,  is 
the  large  fountain  'Ain  es-Sultan.  This  is  the  only  one  near 
Jericho  ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  regard  these  as  the  waters 
miraculously  healed  by  Elisha.^  They  may  have  been  earlier 
brackish  and  warm,  like  most  of  the  fountains  further  north 
and  south  ;  now  they  are  sweet  and  pleasant,  not  cold  in- 
deed, but  also  only  slightly  warm.  The  fountain  bursts  forth 
at  the  eastern  foot  of  a  high  double  mound,  or  group  of 
mounds,  situated  a  mile  or  more  in  front  of  the  mountain 
Quarantana.  It  was  once  surrounded  by  a  reservoir  or  semi- 
circular enclosure  of  hewn  stones  ;  from  which  the  water  was 
carried  off  in  various  directions  into  the  plain  ;  but  this  is 
now  mostly  broken  away.  The  largest  stream  at  present 
runs  towards  the  village  ;  a  part  of  it  is  still  carried  off  across 
Wady  Kelt,  by  an  aqueduct  with  pointed  arches.  Of  the  two 
fountains,  that  of  Duk  is  the  largest.^ 

A  little  more  than  half  way  from  Jericho  to  the  Jordan, 
at  the  ford  el-Helu,  in  a  low  tract  covered  with  shrubs  and 
trees  of  the  Rishrash  or  willow  {Agnus  castus),  is  'Ain 
Hajla,  a  beautiful  spring  of  sweet  and  limpid  water.    It  is 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  571  [II.  p.  309].   Aci/c,  1  Mace.  xvi.  14,  15. 

2  2  Kings  ii.  19-22. 

8  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  554,  555  [11.  pp.  283-285]. 


25G 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


enclosed  by  a  circular  wall  of  masonry,  or  small  reseiToir,  five 
feet  deep  ;  and  sends  forth  a  tolerably  copious  stream,  which 
waters  the  tract  below.  It  is  regarded  as  the  finest  water  in 
all  the  Gh5r.  This  fountain  doubtless  marks  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Beth-Hoglah,  on  the  boundary  line  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin.^ 

A  number  of  fountains  exist  along  the  western  coast  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  On  the  shore,  nearly  an  hour  distant  from  the 
Jordan,  and  two  hours  N.  E.  by  E.  from  'Ain  el-Feshkhah, 
is  a  brackish  fountain  in  a  cane-brake,  called  'Ain  Jehair.^ 

'Ain  cl-Feshkhah  is  at  the  northern  base  of  the  bold 
promontory  Ras  el-Feshkhah.  The  fountain  boils  up  near 
the  shore,  a  very  copious  stream,  or  rather  streams,  of  lim- 
pid water,  but  brackish,  and  having  a  slight  taste  of  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen.  It  is  warm,  like  several  of  the  fountains 
further  north  ;  its  temperature  being  80°  F.  The  wet  and 
marshy  ground  around  the  fountain  is  covered  by  a  dense 
thicket  of  canes,  extending  for  half  an  hour  along  the  shore.^ 

On  the  shore,  two  thirds  of  the  way  from  Ras  el-Feshkhah 
to  'Ain  Terabeh,  is  the  small  fountain  'Ain  Ghuweir.  It  is 
commonly  reported  as  brackish  ;  but  is,  in  some  seasons, 
sweet  and  potable.*  'Ain  Teriibeli  itself  is  about  half  way 
between  Ras  el-Feshkhah  and  'Ain  Jidy.  It  rises  on  the 
very  shore  of  the  lake,  a  strip  of  only  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
intervening.  It  is  usually  reported  as  brackish  ;  but,  at  the 
time  of  Lynch's  encampment  there,  it  furnished  a  supply 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  544  [11.  p.  268]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  535  [IL  p.  254].  Anderson,  Geological  Report, 
p. 198. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  1.  p.  533  [IL  p.  252].  Anderson,  Geological  Report, 
p.  1C6. 

4  Anderson,  Geolo;^ical  Report,  p.  166.  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  42.  Biblical 
Researches,  I.  p.  531  [II.  p.  249]. 


FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NEAR  THE  GHOR. 


257 


of  perfectly  sweet  water.  Here,  also,  is  a  thicket  of  luxu- 
rious growth.^ 

South  of  Ras  Mersed,  at  the  north  end  of  the  plain  of  *Ain 
Jidy,  comes  down  Wadj  Sudeir.  In  this  valley,  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  shore,  there  is  a  fountain  of  sweet  water 

The  pearl  of  all  these  fountains  along  the  Dead  Sea,  is 
that  of  'Ain  Jidy,  nearly  midway  of  the  western  coast.  It 
bursts  forth,  a  full  stream,  not  upon  the  shore,  but  frofn  a 
narrow  plateau  on  the  side  of  the  clifiF,  four  hundred  feet 
above  the  lake.  This  cliff  stands  back  a  little  from  the  lake, 
as  compared  with  Ras  Mersed  and  that  south  of  Wady  el- 
'Areijeh  ;  and  the  interval  between  its  base  and  the  lake  is 
filled  by  a  small  and  partly  alluvial  plain,  in  some  parts 
nearly  half  a  mile  wide.  The  stream  from  the  fountain 
rushes  down  the  steep  declivity  below  ;  and  its  course  is  hid- 
den by  a  luxuriant  thicket  of  trees  and  shrubs,  belonging  to 
a  more  southern  clime.  The  brook  takes  its  way  across  the 
rich  plain  directly  to  the  lake;  though  when  we  saw  it,  in 
May,  1838,  its  waters  were  absorbed  by  the  thirsty  earth  long 
before  reaching  the  shore.  So  far  as  the  water  extended,  the 
plain  was  covered  with  gardens,  chiefly  of  cucumbers.  The 
fountain  itself  is  limpid  and  sparkling,  with  a  copious  sup- 
ply of  sweet  water  ;  but  warm,  the  temperature  being  81°  F. 
Kept  in  vessels  over  night,  we  found  it  delightfully  cool  and 
refreshing.  Like  most  of  the  fountains  of  the  country,  it  is 
strongly  impregnated  with  lime,  and  does  not  take  soap  well. 
In  the  fountain  itself  are  great  numbers  of  small  black 
snails.^ 

1  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  166.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  528  [11. 
p.  245]. 

*  Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  290.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  527,  533  [II.  pp.  242, 
252], 

»  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  504-506  [11.  pp.  209-211]. 
33 


258 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


In  Wady  el-Areijeh,  next  south  of  'Ain  Jidy,  there  is  a 
fine  fountain  of  sweet  water,  'Ain  el-'Areijeh ;  with  large 
willow  trees,  from  which  the  Arabs  make  bowls.  It  pours 
forth  a  very  copious  supply  of  water ;  which  however  soon 
runs  to  waste,  and  disappears  entirely  before  reaching  the 
lake.i 

No  other  sources  of  sweet  water  are  known  on  the  west- 
ern coast.  South  of  the  sea  and  of  Jebel  Usdum  are  the 
salt  marshes  and  springs  of  'Ain  el-Beida.  Still  further 
south,  along  the  foot  of  the  Scorpion  Cliffs,  many  brackish 
sources  burst  forth,  converting  the  whole  tract  into  a  marsh. 
The  largest  of  these  is  'Ain  el-'Arus,  nearly  midway  of  the 
cliffs.2 

In  the  Ghor  East  of  Jordan,  The  eastern  side  of  the  Gh6r 
has  been  less  fully  explored  even  than  the  western ;  and  the 
fountains  known  to  exist  there  are  fewer. 

Below  'Ain  Kunyeh,  a  village  on  the  hillside  east  of  Banias, 
there  is  a  fountain ;  and  more  than  three  hours  south  of 
Banias  is  'Ain  Rawy,  northwest  of  el-Mughar,  which  Dr. 
De  Forest  notes  as  the  first  source  he  saw  on  the  way  from 
Banias.^  There  are  probably  other  sources  along  the  base 
of  the  hills  ;  but  no  traveller  has  passed  there  to  note 
them. 

The  little  plain  el-Batihah,  at  the  north  end  of  the  lake  of 
Tiberias,  is  watered  by  no  less  than  three  perennial  streams, 
which  imply  living  fountains  not  far  distant ;  but  they  have 
not  been  visited.* 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  500  [H.  p.  204].  Anderson's  Geological  Report, 
p.  175. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  115-117  [H.  pp.  493-495]. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  398.  Journal  of  American  Oriental  Society, 
n.  p.  241. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  412  [HL  p.  306] . 


FOUNTAINS  IN  AND  NILVR  THE  GHOR. 


250 


The  eastern  shore  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  remains  in  like 
manner  unexplored ;  nor  is  any  spring  known  on  this  side 
north  of  the  river  Yarmuk.  The  hot  springs  in  the  deep 
bed  of  that  river  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  level 
of  the  Ghor ;  they  have  already  been  described.^ 

No  other  fountain  is  marked  until  we  reach  Faliil,  the 
site  of  ancient  Pella,  over  against  Beisan  in  the  southeast. 
Here  in  the  ravine  south  of  the  ruins  is  the  large  and  noble 
fountain  which  led  Pliny  to  speak  of  the  place  as  "  Pellam 
aquis  divitemy  ^  The  source  is  now  called  Jerm  el-Mauz, 
and  sends  off  a  mill-stream  down  the  valley,  which  at  pres- 
ent is  almost  a  marsh,  overgrown  with  tamarisks  and  olean- 
ders. The  valley  breaks  down,  as  Wady  Mauz,  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Ghur  and  the  Jordan,  half  an  hour  south  of  the 
ford  to  Beisan.  Near  the  fountain  are  two  columns  still 
standing,  as  of  a  small  temple." 

Just  south  of  ^Vady  Yabis,  on  the  terrace  of  the  Ghor, 
there  is  a  spring,  giving  rise  to  a  marsh  and  small  brook,  with 
a  fertile  tract  around.* 

We  pass  on  to  Wady  Sha'ib,  descending  from  near  es-Salt 
southwesterly  to  the  Jordan,  at  a  point  E.  by  N.  from  Jer- 
icho. On  entering  the  plain  it  passes  the  ruins  of  Nimrin, 
the  Nimrah  and  Beth-Nimrali  of  Scripture  ;  and  near  by  are 
several  fountains,  corresponding  to  the  Waters  of  Nimrim.^ 

At  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Dead  Sea  the  fountain  'Ain 
es-Suweimeh  near  the  shore,  is  surrounded  by  cane-brakes. 
It  would  appear,  that  a  small  brook,  Nahr  es-Suweimeh,  here 

1  See  above,  p.  179.  2  pun.  Hist.  Nat.,  5.  16  (18). 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  321,  322. 
*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  316. 

«  Num.  xxxii.  3,  36;  Josh.  xiii.  27;  Isa.  xv.  6;  Jer.  xlviii.  34.  Seetzen,  Reisen, 
II.  p.  318.   Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  551  [II.  p.  279]. 


2G0 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


runs  down  to  the  shore,  fed  by  two  springs  further  back, 
*Ayun  ed-Deib  and  'Ayun  Musa.^ 

Between  this  spot  and  the  Zerka  Ma'in  there  are  several 
small  brooks  of  sweet  water,  and  one  large  one  ;  implying 
fountains  not  remote.^  The  hot  springs  in  the  bed  of  the 
Zerka  Ma'in  have  already  been  described.^  Half  an  hour 
south  of  the  Zerka,  Seetzen,  who  passed  along  the  shore,  re- 
ports another  brook  of  hot  water.^  Between  this  and  the 
Arnon  the  same  traveller  found  three  fountains  of  sweet 
water,  two  of  them  large,  and  several  fine  brooks.  He  was 
struck  with  the  abundance  of  sweet  water  along  the  side  of 
the  Dead  Sea.^ 

In  Wady  Hamad,  or  Wady  Beni  Hamady,  next  north  of 
Wady  Kerak,  a  liot  spring  is  reported  ;  but  has  not  yet  been 
visited  by  travellers.  There  is  another  similar  hot  spring  in 
a  branch  of  Wady  el-Ahsy,  southeast  from  the  south  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea.^ 


IV.   FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  EAST  OF  JORDAN. 

Travellers  in  these  eastern  regions  have  been  comparatively 
few  ;  and  our  information  respecting  the  permanent  sources 
of  water  is  very  imperfect. 

The  perennial  sources  which  supply  the  Yarmuk  and  its 
branches,  at  Tell  Dilly  and  el-Mazarib,  have  already  been 
described.' 

In  the  rocky  district  of  the  Lojali  there  are  no  springs  in 

1  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  194.    Seetzen,  Reisen,  II,  p.  324. 

2  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  194. 

5  See  above,  p.  178.  •*  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  p.  368. 

5  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  3G7,  368. 

6  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  pp.  359,  360.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  401.  See  above, 
p.  183. 

7  See  above,  pp.  173,  174. 


FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  HILL-COUNTRY  EAST  OF  JORDAN.  261 


any  part ;  and  the  inhabitants  are  wholly  dependent  on  the 
rain  water  preserved  in  cisterns  and  Birkets  or  tanks.  In  the 
outer  borders  of  the  Lejah,  however,  called  the  Luhf,  there 
are  springs.^ 

In  the  west,  on  the  great  road  from  Damascus  to  the  bridge 
over  the  Jordan,  el-Jisr  Benat  Ya'kob,  at  half  an  hour  west  of 
Tell  Khanzir,  is  a  cluster  of  fountains,  known  as  'Ayun  es- 
Semmam.  At  Fik,  there  are  three  springs  below  the  village, 
which  form  a  brook  flowing  down  the  valley  towards  the  lake 
of  Tiberias.2 

In  the  great  plain  of  Hauran,  as  well  as  on  the  slopes  of 
the  adjacent  mountain,  there  are  comparatively  few  springs. 
The  supply  of  water  is  obtained  mostly  from  wells,  cisterns, 
and  Birkets.^  Yet  some  of  the  principal  towns  have  copious 
fountains  ;  as  Kunawat  QKenatli)^  Hebran,  'Orman  QPhilip- 
popolis)^  and  Busra  (^Bozrah,  Bostra)^  At  the  latter,  there 
are  no  less  than  five  sources  outside  of  the  city,  and  six 
within.  There  is  likewise  a  fine  spring  at  Tell  xVsh'areh.^ 
Besides  these,  Burckhardt  fell  in  with  some  ten  or  twelve 
other  fountains  in  different  parts  of  the  plain.  Some  of  the 
strongest  places  are  wholly  dependent  on  rain  water  ;  as  Sul- 
khad,  the  ancient  Sulchah.^ 

Passing  southward  into  Jebel  'Ajlun,  the  fountains  re- 
ported are  still  few.  Half  an  hour  northwest  of  Hebras 
is  'Ain  el-Terab,  in  a  Wady.'  Near  'Arjan  are  two  sources, 
'Ain  el-Tannur  and  'Ain  el-Beida  ;  the  brook  flows  to  Wady 
Yabis,  and  an  hour  below  'Arjan  is  another  fountain.  Tlie 
stream  drives  three  mills.^    At  Suf  are  three  copious  springs. 


1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  112,  218. 
3  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  132. 
«  Porter's  Handbook,  p.  531. 
'  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  270. 


2  Burckhardt,  p.  315.   Ibid.,  p.  279. 
*  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  83, 86,  80,  99, 221. 
6  Porter's  Handbook,  p.  100. 
8  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  383. 


262  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  permanent  head  of  the  stream  which  flows  by  Jerasli 
(^Gerasa)  to  the  Zerka.^  At  the  village  'Ain  Jenneh,  above 
'Ajlun,  several  springs  issue  from  under  the  rock,  and  form 
the  brook  which  descends  through  Wady  'Ajldn  to  the  Jor- 
dan ;  and  half  an  hour  north  of  'Ajlun  is  another  fountain, 
'Ain  et-Teis.2 

South  of  the  Zerka,  in  ascending  to  es-Salt  by  the  usual 
road  from  Jerash,  there  is  a  fine  spring  half  way  up,  at 
'Allan ;  and  another  further  west,  on  the  way  from  'Abu 
'Obeida  to  es-Salt.^  At  es-Salt  there  is  a  copious  spring  within 
the  city  ;  and  another, ' Ain  Jedur,  ten  minutes  distant  towards 
the  north  in  a  valley.*  In  descending  the  narrow  valley 
south  of  es-Salt,  near  the  remains  of  a  considerable  town 
known  as  Khirbet  es-Suk,  there  is  a  fine  spring  called  'Ain 
Hazor.  It  turns  several  mills,  and  empties  into  Wady  Shu- 
'eib,  wliich  runs  by  Nimrin  to  the  Jordan.^ 

Southeast  of  Fulieis,  in  the  tract  Ard  el-Hemar,  are  a 
number  of  springs,  which  render  it  fertile  in  pasturage.^ 
Not  far  east,  or  northeast  of  these,  are  likewise  springs  at 
Safut  and  Um  Jauzy.'''  All  these  lie  on  the  usual  routes  from 
es-Salt  by  Fuheis  to  'Amman.  The  stream  which  flows  by 
'Amman  itself,  and  runs  north  to  the  Zerka,  has  its  source  in  a 
small  pond  a  few  hunilred  paces  south  of  the  ruins.^  Accord- 
ing to  Burckhardt,  sources  of  water  are  only  seldom  met  with 
in  the  high  plain  of  the  Belka  ;  a  circumstance  which  greatly 
enhanced  the  importance  of  the  situation  of  'Amrhan.^ 

Not  far  west  of  Hesban  (Heshbo7i)  is  a  fountain,  the  head 

1  Burckhardr,  Syria,  p.  249.    Scetzcn,  Reisen,  I.  p.  387. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  2C6,  267.    Sectzen,  Rciscn,  I.  p.  380. 

3  Lord  Lindsay's  Letters  (London,  1858),  p.  287.   Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  348. 
*  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  350.  ^  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  335. 

6  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  356.  ^  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  361,  362. 

8  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  357.  9  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  361. 


WARM  AND  MINERAL  FOUNTAINS. 


2G3 


of  Nahr  Hesban,  which  runs  to  the  Jordan  just  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  drives  several  mills.^  No  other 
springs  are  reported  north  of  Rabba  ;  though  the  streams 
which  rise  in  the  east  and  flow  in  deep  chasms  across  the 
plain,  as  the  Zerka  Ma'in,  the  Waleh,  and  the  Mojib,  indicate 
fountains  in  that  quarter.  Less  than  an  hour  southeast  of 
Rabba,  are  two  copious  fountains,  'Ain  Jubeibeh  and  'Ain 
Yarud.2  At  Kerak,  in  the  valley  north  and  west  of  the  town, 
are  several  large  springs.  One  of  them,  'Ain  Sarah,  issues 
from  the  rock  in  a  very  romantic  spot,  and  serves  to  turn 
three  mills.  Another,  'Ain  Feranjy,  '  Frank  spring,'  is 
southwest  of  the  city  nearly  a  mile  distant.^ 

Near  Khanzireli  are  several  springs ;  the  waters  unite  in  a 
rivulet,  which  irrigates  the  fields  and  extensive  gardens  of 
the  village.* 

The  springs  near  Kul'at  el-Ahsy,  or  el-Hassa,  at  the  head 
of  Wady  el-Ahsy,  have  already  been  referred  to.^ 

WARM  AND  MINERAL  FOUNTAINS. 

The  springs  sending  forth  warm  and  mineral  waters,  have 
been  enumerated  above  with  the  rest.  So  far  as  is  known, 
they  are  found  only  in  the  depressed  region  of  the  Ghor. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 

Hot  Sulphur  Springs  are  found  in  five  places;  namely, 
near  Tiberias,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake  ;  temperature 
144°  F.^  In  the  deep  chasm  of  the  Yarmuk,  north  of  Um 
Keis,  or  Gadara;  highest  temperature  109°  F.^  In  the  ravine 

1  Seetzen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  407,  II.  p.  323. 

2  Burckhardt,  S3'ria,  p.  377. 

3  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  379.   Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  137. 

4  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  397. 

«  See  above,  p.  183.     Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  658. 

6  See  above,  p.  205.  ^  See  above,  p.l75. 


264 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


of  the  Zerka  Ma'in  ( Callirrlwe)  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.^  In 
Wady  Hamad,  and  in  a  branch  of  Wady  el-Ahsy With 
the  exception  of  those  near  Tiberias,  these  are  all  on  the  east 
of  the  Gh$r. 

Warm  Saline  Springs  occur  at  a  single  spot,  in  Wady 
Malih,  south  of  Beisan.  The  temperature  of  the  water  is 
blood  warm,  or  OS**  F.^ 

Warm  Springs  in  general,  of  which  there  are  at  least  five 
reported,  all  on  the  west  of  the  Ghor.  'Ain  el-Mellahah  and 
'Ain  et-Tabighah  are  slightly  warm  and  brackish.*  'Ain  es- 
Sultan,  near  Jericho,  is  slightly  warm,  but  not  brackish.^ 
'Ain  el-Feshkah,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is 
quite  brackish,  with  a  temperature  of  81°  F.,  while  'Ain  Jidy, 
further  south,  has  a  temperature  of  80°  F.,  without  any 
brackish  taste. ^ 


1  See  above,  p.  179. 
8  See  above,  p.  254. 
^  See  above,  p.  255. 


2  See  above,  p.  260. 
*  See  above,  p.  251. 
«  See  above,  pp.  256,  257. 


WELLS. 


265 


SECTION  IV. 

WELLS.    CISTERNS.   RESERVOIRS.  AQUEDUCTS. 

All  these,  as  being  the  work  of  man,  do  not  in  a  strict 
sense  belong  to  Physical  Geography.  Still,  as  they  relate  to 
the  supply  and  preservation  of  the  natural  element  of  water, 
they  may  properly  be  considered  here. 

I.  WELLS. 

There  are  many  wells  in  Palestine,  particularly  in  those 
parts  remote  from  fountains  and  permanent  streams.  The 
patriarchs,  in  their  wanderings,  caused  wells  to  be  dug  for 
the  supply  of  their  flocks  and  herds ;  especially  in  the  south 
of  Judea.    Of  these  several  remain  unto  the  present  day. 

Abraham's  servants  thus  dug  several  wells  in  the  south  ; 
where,  in  those  days,  the  Philistines  likewise  pastured  their 
flocks.  After  his  death,  the  latter  stopped  the  wells  which 
his  servants  had  dug,  and  filled  them  with  earth.^  Only  one 
of  Abraham's  wells  is  spoken  of  by  name,  that  of  Beer- 
sheba,  *  well  of  the  oath.'  Here,  too,  Isaac  digged  a  well, 
after  having  restored^  the  others ;  probably  a  second  well, 
for  the  better  supply  of  his  numerous  flocks.^  These  wells 
are  still  known  among  the  Arabs  at  Bir  es-Seba'. 

Upon  the  northern  side  of  Wady  es-Seba',  close  upon  the 

1  Gen.  xxvi.  15, 18.  2  Qen.  xxvi.  25,  32,  33. 

34 


266 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


bank,  are  the  two  deep  and  ancient  wells  which  give  occasion 
for  this  name.  They  are  circular,  and  are  stoned  up  very 
neatly  with  solid  masonry,  apparently  of  great  antiquity. 
The  larger  one  is  twelve  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  and 
forty-four  and  a  half  feet  deep  to  the  surface  of  the  w^ater  (in 
April,  1838)  ;  sixteen  feet  of  which,  at  the  bottom,  is  exca- 
vated in  the  solid  rock.  The  other  well  is  fifty-five  rods 
W.  S.  W.,  and  is  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  forty-two  feet 
deep.  The  water  in  both  is  pure  and  sweet,  and  in  great 
abundance.  Both  wells  are  surrounded  with  drinking- 
troughs  of  stone  for  camels  and  flocks  ;  such  as  were  doubt- 
less used  of  old  for  the  latter,  wliich  then  fed  on  the  neigh- 
boring hills.  The  curbstones  aio  deeply  worn  by  the  fric- 
tion of  the  ropes  in  drawing  up  water  by  hand.^ 

Of  Isaac  it  is  related,  that  he  removed  from  the  city  Gerar, 
and  pitched  his  tent  in  the  valley  of  Gerar ;  where  he  "  dig- 
ged again  the  wells  of  water,  which  they  had  digged  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  his  father,"  and  which  the  Philistines  had 
stopped  after  the  death  of  Abraham.^  His  servants  likewise 
digged  two  other  wells,  called  Esek  and  Sitnah,  apparently 
in  or  near  the  same  valley ;  from  which  the  Philistines  drove 
them  away.^  Isaac  then  "  removed  from  thence,  and  dig- 
ged another  well ;  and  for  that  they  strove  not ;  and  he 
called  the  name  of  it  Rehoboth,"  '  wide  places,  room.'^  It  is 
an  ob\'ious  suggestion,  that  this  name  may  be  preserved  in 
the  modern  er-Ruliaibeh,  the  name  of  a  Wady  on  which  are 
the  ruins  of  an  extensive  ancient  city,  about  eight  hours 

1  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  204  [L  p.  300J.  Stewart,  Tent  and  Kban,  p.  214. 
Dr.  Durbin  mentions  a  third  well  now  filled  up,  Travels,  I.  p.  200.  Van  de  Velde 
speaks  of  five  wells  of  smaller  diameter  in  the  dry  bed  of  the  Wady;  Narrative, 
n.  p.  136. 

2  Gen.  xxvi.  6, 17, 18.  3  Qen.  xxvi.  19,  21. 
*  Gen.  xxvi.  22. 


WELLS. 


267 


south  of  Beersheba.  There  is  hero  an  ancient  well,  now 
filled  up,  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  regularly  built  up  with 
hewn  stone  ;  one  course  of  the  stones  being  still  visible  above 
ground. 1  It  seems,  indeed,  not  improbable  tliat  Isaac,  when 
driven  away  from  his  wells  in  the  valley  of  Gerar,  followed 
up  that  valley,  or  its  branches,  until  he  came  to  the  fertile 
Wady  er-Ruhaibeh.2  There,  his  servants,  having  dug  this 
well  in  quiet,  a  city  of  the  same  name  afterwards  sprang 
up  around  it.  I  am  disposed  to  accept  this  identity  of  name 
and  place  ;  especially  as  it  is  said  that  Isaac  "  went  up  from 
thence  to  Beersheba,"  implying  a  journey  of  some  distance.^ 
But  down  to  the  year  1838,  there  is  no  historical  notice,  so 
far  as  is  known,  either  of  the  well  or  city,  since  the  days  of 
Isaac. 

It  was  after  this  that  Isaac  caused  the  second  well  to  be 
dug  at  Beersheba,  as  above  related.^ 

Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Syria,  purchased  a  piece  of 
ground  on  the  east  of  Shechem,  now  Nabulus  ;  where  he 
pitched  his  tent  and  erected  an  altar  to  the  Lord.^  He  after- 
wards removed  to  Bethel,  and  again  to  Mamre  and  Hebron, 
where  he  seems  to  have  dwelt  until  his  departure  for  Egypt ; 
liaving  possession  apparently  of  the  wells  of  his  fatliers  in  the 
south.^  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  nowhere  said  that  Jacob 
dug  any  wells  ;  but  from  the  New  Testament  we  learn,  that 
he  caused  one  to  be  dug  on  the  piece  of  ground  which  he 
bought  near  Shechem."^  At  this  well  our  Lord  held  his 
remarkable  conversation  with  the  Samaritan  woman ;  and 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  19G  [L  p.  290].   Stewart,  Tent  and  Khan,  p.  202. 

2  See  above,  p.  123.  3  Qen.  xxvi.  23. 
*  Gen.  xxvi.  25,  31,  32;  comp.  vs.  18. 

^  Gen.  xxxiii.  19;  Josh.  xxiv.  32. 

«  Gen.  XXXV.  1,  3,  6,  15,  16,  27,  xxxvii.  14,  xlvi.  1,  5. 

?  John  iv.  5-12. 


268 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  same  well  remains  to  this  day. 
Wc  know  from  Jerome,  that  as  early  as  the  fourth  century 
a  church  was  erected  near  the  well ;  the  ruins  and  three 
granite  columns  of  which  are  still  seen  around  it.^ 

The  opening  of  the  well,  as  seen  from  without,  is  very 
small ;  and  is  usually  covered  with  a  stone.  But  this  is  only 
an  orifice  in  the  roof  of  a  vault  or  dome  of  stone,  built  up 
over  the  proper  mouth  of  the  well.  In  this  vault  was  for- 
merly an  altar ;  on  which  Greek  and  Latin  priests  were  ac- 
customed to  celebrate  mass  once  a  year.  The  well  itself  is 
nine  feet  in  diameter,  and  seventy-five  feet  deep,  entirely 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  It  is  a  work  of  great  labor,  and 
bears  marks  of  the  highest  antiquity.  The  well  is  often  dry ; 
it  was  so  in  June,  1838,  and  nearly  so  in  April,  1843 ;  while 
in  April,  1839,  it  had  ten  or  twelve  feet  of  water.  These 
variations  are  the  more  singular,  since  the  neighboring  foun- 
tains of  Defneh  and  Belatali,  the  latter  quite  near,  are  un- 
derstood to  be  permanent,  sending  forth  their  large  streams 
all  the  year  round.^ 

It  may  here  be  asked,  how  the  Samaritan  woman  can  be 
supposed  to  have  come  from  the  city,  now  half  an  hour  dis- 
tant, in  order  to  draw  water,  when  too  she  must  have  passed 
directly  by  large  fountains  on  her  way  ?  To  this  it  may  be 
replied,  that  probably  the  ancient  city  of  Shechem  once  ex- 
tended much  further  down  the  valley  towards  the  well ;  and 
also,  that  there  may  naturally  have  been  in  the  minds  of  the 
inhabitants,  an  idea  of  the  greater  purity  and  value  of  the 
water  of  Jacob's  well ;  so  that  they  occasionally  resorted  to 

1  Hieron.  (cd.  Martianay),  Ep.  86;  Epit.  Paulae,  p.  676.  Biblical  Researches, 
IL  P.2&4  [HL  p.  110]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  283,  284  [III.  pp.  109,  110].  Wilson,  Lands  of  the 
Bible,  IL  pp.  55-57.   See  above,  p.  248. 


WELLS. 


2G9 


it  even  for  a  small  supply.  The  woman  had  only  a  water- 
jar.i 

More  difficult  is  it  to  understand,  why  a  well,  excavated 
with  so  much  labor,  should  ever  have  been  dug  on  this  spot 
at  all ;  so  near  to  large  fountains  and  streams.  For  this  I 
am  unable  to  account,  unless  by  supposing,  that  in  this  land 
of  earthquakes  these  fountains  may  have  burst  forth  at  some 
later  period,  after  the  well  was  dug. 

Besides  the  wells  of  the  patriarchs,  there  are  many  others 
bearing  the  marks  of  high  antiquity.  Such  is  the  well  of 
Job,  the  ancient  En^Rogel,  in  the  valley  under  Jerusalem ; 
to  bo  described  among  the  waters  of  the  Holy  City.  At 
Milii  QMoladali)^  quite  in  the  southeast  of  Judah,  are  two  old 
wells,  measuring  about  forty  feet  in  depth,  and  walled  up 
round  with  good  mason-work  ;  one  is  seven  and  a  half  and 
the  other  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  water  is  not  in  high  re- 
pute among  the  Arabs. ^ 

Near  Idhna  (Jedna)  southeast  of  Beit  Jibrin,  is  a  large 
public  well ;  the  curbstones  of  which  are  much  worn  by  the 
friction  of  ropes. ^  Xear  Beit  Jibrin  itself  (^Eleutheropolis} 
are  three  large  public  wells,  apparently  ancient,  and  sur- 
rounded with  drinking  troughs.^  At  Summeil,  on  the  way 
to  Gaza,  is  a  large  public  well,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet 
deep  to  the  water,  and  eleven  feet  in  diameter  ;  the  walls  are 
circular,  and  composed  of  hewn  stones  of  good  masonry.^ 
At  Huj  and  Sukkariyeh,  villages  lying  between  Gaza  and 
Bait  Jibrin,  are  wells  probably  ancient ;  that  of  the  former 
is  nearly  two  hundred  feet  deep.^  At  Daniyal,  east  of  Lydda, 

1  John  iv.  28,  vBpia.  2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  200  [II.  p.  619]. 

»  Biblical  Researches,  IT.  p.  57  [IT.  p.  404]. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  26  [II.  p.  257]. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  33  [II.  p.  367]. 

6  Biblical  Researches,  n.  pp.  45,  50  [II.  pp.  386,  393]. 


270 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


is  likewise  one,  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  deep.^  Further, 
there  are  ancient  wells  at  Kefr  Saba  (^Antipatris} ,  near  Kefr 
Kud  QCapa7'coiia),  and  at  Kefr  Menda  in  Galilee.^ 

Occasionally  wells  appear  to  have  been  dug  at  a  distance 
from  towns  or  villages,  by  the  wayside,  for  the  convenience 
of  travellers  and  their  animals,  or  of  flocks  and  herds  pas- 
tured in  the  region.  Thus  in  Wady  es-Sumt,  southeast  of 
Beit  Nettif,  is  an  ancient  well  of  this  kind,  twenty-five  or 
thirty  feet  deep  ;  and  in  another  valley  further  west,  is  a 
second  similar  well,  at  which  there  were  many  flocks.^ 

Between  'Ain  Shems  (^Beth- Shemesli)  and  Akir  (^Ekron) 
are  two  such  wells ;  the  one  nearest  Ekron  being  quite 
large,  and  usually  surrounded  by  flocks.^  On  the  way  from 
Lydda  to  Beit  'Ur  QBeth-horoii)  there  is  a  well  near  a  former 
Wely,  called  Um  Rush  ;  and  another  further  east  by  the 
wayside.^  Not  far  southeast  of  'Akka  also,  on  one  of  the 
great  roads  leading  into  Galilee,  are  two  similar  wells,  at 
some  distance  apart.^ 

Of  King  Uzziah  it  is  related,  that  he  built  towers  in  the 
desert  and  digged  many  wells  [or  cisterns]  ;  for  he  had 
much  cattle."  Whether  these  were  wells  or  cisterns  (the  He- 
brew word  may  signify  either),  they  were  obviously  intended 
for  the  flocks  and  herds. 

These  public  wells  are  ordinarily  surrounded  with  drink- 
ing troughs  of  stone,  rarely  of  wood,  for  the  use  of  animals. 
Sometimes  ancient  sarcophagi  are  employed  for  this  purpose. 
Thus  at  Kefr  Menda  in  Galilee  no  less  than  three  such  sar- 

4 

1  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  248  [HL  p.  55]. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  139,  121,  109. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  H.  pp.  21,  22  [H.  pp.  350,  351]. 
<  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  226  [HL  pp.  20,  21]. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  IL  pp.  249,  250  [IH.  pp.  57,  58]. 

6  Later  Biblical  Researches^  p.  89.  ^  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10. 


WELLS. 


271 


copliagi  lie  around  the  great  well  of  the  village  as  drinking- 
troiiglis.  One  of  them  is  sculptured  on  the  side  with  not 
inelegant  festoons.^ 

Around  these  wells  there  are  frequently,  even  at  this  day, 
scenes  of  pastoral  life,  not  unlike  those  of  the  patriarchal 
times.  Thus  at  Beit  Jibrin,  in  1838,  flocks  and  herds  were 
gathered  around  the  wells ;  while  men  and  women  were 
drawing  water,  and  filling  for  them  the  many  drinking- 
troughs.2  At  the  well  in  the  valley  west  of  Wady  es-Sumt, 
many  cattle,  flocks  of  sheep  and  of  kids,  and  also  camels, 
were  all  waiting  around  ;  and  men  and  women  were  ])usily 
employed  in  supplying  them  with  water.  These  hospitable 
people  at  once  offered  and  drew  water  for  us  and  our  thirsty 
animals,  without  expectation  of  reward.^  Similar  scenes 
were  repeated  at  various  other  wells. 

The  mode  of  drawing  water  is  various.  Where  the  well 
is  not  too  deep,  the  rope  of  the  bucket  is  usually  let  down 
and  drawn  up  by  hand.  At  Summeil,  where  the  well  is  over 
a  hundred  feet  deep,  the  rope  was  passed  over  a  pulley  above 
the  well ;  and  then  several  women  hauled  it  up  by  running 
off  with  it  a  long  distance  into  the  fields.*  At  the  still  deeper 
wells  of  Huj  and  D^niyfil,  the  rope  was  fitted  in  like  manner 
over  a  pulley,  and  was  drawn  up  by  a  yoke  of  oxen  driven 
off  in  a  straight  line  into  the  fields.^  At  Sukkariyeh,  a  vil- 
lage which  had  just  been  rebuilt  by  Sheikh  Sa'id,  governor 
of  Gaza,  an  Egyptian  Sikieh  had  been  introduced  ;  that  is, 
an  endless  rope,  with  jars  attached  to  it,  passing  over  a 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  109. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  26  [11.  p..  357]. 
8  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  22  [IL  p.  351]. 
*  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  33  [IL  p.  367]. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  45,  248  [II.  p.  367,  III.  p.  55]. 


272  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 


wheel  above  the  well ;  this  was  turned  by  a  camel  travelling 
in  a  circle.^ 

Still  more  common  seems  to  be  the  drawing  of  water  by 
means  of  a  reel  placed  horizontally  on  a  platform  over  the 
mouth  of  the  well,  with  the  rope  fastened  to  it.  A  man  sit- 
ting on  a  bar  or  bench  level  with  the  axis,  winds  up  the  rope 
by  drawing  the  top  of  the  reel  towards  him  with  his  hands, 
and  at  the  same  time  pushing  the  bottom  of  it  from  him  with 
his  feet.  We  saw  this  method  first  at  the  well  west  of  Wady 
es-Sumt,  where  the  reel  was  small  and  was  turned  by  one 
man  ;  and  again  at  the  well  southeast  of  Ekron,  where  the 
reel  was  larger  and  two  men  were  at  work  ;  the  same  machine 
was  also  in  use  at  the  two  wells  southeast  of  'Akka.^ 

This  method  of  raising  water  was  formerly  known  in 
Egypt,  though  now  superseded  there  ;  and  seems  to  afford 
the  best  explanation  of  what  is  meant  in  Scripture  by  the 
phrase  "  watering  with  the  foot."  ^ 

n.  CISTERNS. 

As  rain  falls  in  Palestine  ordinarily  only  in  the  period 
from  November  till  March  ;  and  during  summer  the  winter- 
brooks  dry  up,  and  the  fountains  become  low  ;  it  is  important 
for  the  inliabitants  to  preserve  the  waters  of  the  rainy  months 
into  the  dry  season,  and  until  the  autumnal  rains  again  com- 
mence. This  is  done  in  cisterns  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground  ;  and  in  reservoirs  above  ground. 

These  cisterns  are  quite  frequent ;  and  have,  for  the  most 
part,  apparently  come  down  from  ancient  times.    They  are 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IT.  p.  50  [II.  p.  393]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  22,  226  [II.  p.  351,  III.  p.  21].  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, p.  80. 

3  Deut.  xi.  10.   See  especially  Biblical  Researches,  I.,Note  2,  end  of  the  volume. 


CISTERNS. 


273 


usually,  if  not  always,  excavated  in  the  underlying  rock  ; 
which  w^ould  seem  not  difficult  to  be  wrought,  and  sufficiently 
compact  to  hold  the  water.  Not  unfrequently  the  walls  are 
plastered  over  with  cement.  Jerusalem  itself  is  supplied 
with  w^atcr  mainly  from  its  cisterns  ;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  many  towns  and  villages  in  the  hill-country.  Ancient 
cisterns  are  still  found  likewise  in  the  fields  and  along  the 
high  roads ;  in  which  the  water  of  the  rainy  season  was  col- 
lected, for  the  sustenance  of  the  flocks  and  herds,  and^for 
the  comfort  of  the  traveller  and  his  beasts. 

The  cistern  is  usually  nothing  more  than  an  excavated 
chamber,  with  a  round  opening  at  the  top.  In  the  country 
this  opening  is  generally  kept  covered  with  one  or  more 
large  stones.  In  the  town  and  in  houses,  the  water  is  con- 
ducted into  the  cistern  from  the  roofs  and  paved  courts  ;  and 
the  opening  is  often  built  up  around  with  stonework,  and 
furnished  with  a  curb  and  a  wheel  for  the  bucket  ;  so  that 
externally  the  whole  has  the  appearance  of  a  well.  Some- 
times tlie  mouth  of  the  cistern  is  at  one  side  or  corner,  with 
steps  left  in  the  rock  to  descend  into  it  and  bring  up  water.^ 

It  is  needless  to  name  the  places  where  cisterns  are  still 
to  be  found.  The  whole  hill-country  of  Judea  and  Gali- 
lee is  full  of  them.  In  the  low  plains,  where  there  is  little 
underlying  rock,  they  are  not  frequent,  and  occur  only  in 
parts  where  rock  exists.    A  few  notices  will  suffice. 

At  Ruhaibeh,  probably  Isaac's  well  Rehobothy  now  in  the 
desert,  there  are  a  number  of  cisterns  among  the  ruins  of 
the  houses.^  In  the  circuit  of  the  fortress  Masada,  now 
Sebbeh,  are  still  seen  several  cisterns ;  one  of  them  very 
large,  being  nearly  fifty  feet  deep,  a  hundred  long,  and  forty 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  85,  281. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  197  [1.  p.  290]. 

35 


274  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 

broad,  with  steps  to  descend  into  it,  and  having  its  walls 
still  covered  with  a  white  cement.^  At  Beni  Xa'im,  east  of 
Hebron,  are  likewise  ancient  cisterns,  and  there  are  several 
along  the  road  leading  to  it  from  the  north  ;  one  of  these  still 
well  covered  on  the  inside  with  cement,  though  now  broken.^ 
On  the  summit  of  Tell  Zif  (  Zipli)  a  number  of  cisterns  are 
still  seen  ;  and  on  the  way  from  Carmel  to  'Ain  Jidy  through 
the  desert  are  two  deep  ones,  still  used  by  the  Bedawin  ; 
and  a  third,  further  down,  was  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  a  column 
being  left  to  support  the  roof  ;  but  the  roof  is  now  broken 
away.^ 

Around  Hebron  there  are  many  cisterns ;  some  of  them 
very  large.  The  town  itself  appears  to  have  been  mainly 
supplied  from  its  fountains  ;  and  private  cisterns  are  not 
found  in  the  houses,  as  at  Jerusalem^  But  outside  of  the 
city,  round  about,  a  large  provision  of  cisterns  was  made  for 
the  flocks  and  herds  pastured  on  the  neighboring  hills.  Thus 
there  are  two  large  ones  just  north  of  the  city  ;  also  two 
others  in  Wady  en-Xusarah,  still  further  north,  one  of  which 
is  kept  covered  with  a  heavy  stone  ;  besides  others  casually 
mentioned.^  On  the  slope  and  summit  of  the  hill  south  of 
er-Rameh,  or  Abram's  House,  are  several  large  and  remarka- 
ble ancient  cisterns.  Southeast  of  these  is  the  vast  and  sin- 
gular excavation  known  as  Bir  Ijda ;  which,  according  to 
Eosen,  is  a  cistern  of  enormous  extent  hewn  out  in  the  soft 
limestone  rock  of  the  region.  It  has  three  openings  in  the 
top  for  drawing  water ;  from  the  main  opening  to  a  second, 

1  Wolcott,  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1813,  p.  64. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  488-490  [H.  pp.  185-188]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  L  pp.  492,  499  [H.  pp.  191,  202]. 

*  Rosen,  in  Zeitschr.  der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  1858,  XH.  p.  490. 
«  Rosen,  in  Zeitschr.  der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  1858,  XH.  pp.  483, 
484,  487. 


CISTERNS. 


275 


northwest,  is  forty-six  paces ;  and  from  the  same  point  to  the 
third,  south,  twenty-eight  paces.  The  roof  is  supported  by 
pillars  left  in  the  rock  itself.  The  distance  between  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  and  the  roof,  as  seen  by  Wolcott  in  March 
and  by  Rosen  late  in  summer,  was  about  six  feet.  On  one 
side  a  sloping  passage  has  been  cut  down  to  the  water,  by 
which  animals  can  descend  and  drink.  This  passage  was 
furnished  with  a  door,  and  an  ornamental  portal.  One  of 
the  cisterns  in  TTady  en-Xusarah,  called  Bir  Beshat,  has  in 
like  manner  a  passage  for  animals  to  go  down.^ 

On  the  ancient  way  between  Jericho  and  Bethel  are  still 
to  be  seen  several  old  and  broken  cisterns ;  indicating  that 
this  was  once  an  important  and  frequented  road.^ 

At  the  ruined  Khan  opposite  er-Ram,  is  a  public  cistern  ; 
and  another  ten  minutes  north  of  Deir  Jemr,  by  the  way- 
side, where  women  were  washing,  and  where  at  first  we  were 
refused  water  for  our  animals.^  Rfimin,  a  village  northwest 
of  Samaria,  is  wholly  supplied  by  cisterns  ;  which  are  nu- 
merous in  that  and  other  villages  of  the  region  :  as  well  as 
along  the  roads.  Thus,  beyond  'Anebta,  further  west,  are 
two  cisterns  by  the  wayside,  at  which  women  were  drawing 
water  and  bearing  it  off  in  jars.^ 

At  Hableh  on  the  border  of  the  western  plain,  near  An- 
tipatris,  our  tent,  in  1852,  was  pitched  in  a  low  tract,  in  the 
midst  of  cisterns  dug  out  in  sunken  rock,  mostly  with  a 
round  opening  at  the  top.  Some  were  entirely  open,  with 
steps  to  descend  into  them.     A  large  one  was  twelve  feet 

1  Rosen,  in  Zeitschr.  der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  1858,  XII.  pp.  496,  497, 
490.    Wolcott,  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  pp.  55,  56. 

2  Biblical  Researches  I.  p.  .573.  [11.  p.  311]. 
8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  287,  291. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  127,  129. 


276  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

long  by  nine  feet  broad  and  eight  feet  deep  ;  two  rude  and 
very  flat  arches  were  thrown  over  it ;  and  on  these  rested  the 
covering  of  flat  stones,  some  of  which  still  remained.  All 
these  excavations  were  evidently  ancient ;  and  were  thus  nu- 
merous just  here  in  the  low  ground,  because  of  the  greater 
abundance  of  water  in  the  rainy  season.  Only  one  of  them 
was  now  in  use.^ 

On  the  summit  of  Tabor  are  several  ancient  cisterns  ;  in 
one  of  which  we  found  good  water.^ 

The  water  of  cisterns  is  not  always  the  most  pure  and 
pleasant.  Where  it  is  collected  from  roofs  and  courts,  which 
are  kept  clean,  and  the  cisterns  themselves  are  duly  cleansed, 
the  water,  as  mostly  in  Jerusalem,  is  pure,  sweet,  and  cool. 
But  in  the  villages  and  fields,  where  it  is  gathered  from  dirty 
roofs,  and  streets,  and  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  contains 
many  impurities,  and  soon  acquires  a  disagreeable  smell  and 
nauseous  taste ;  exhibiting  also  the  small  wriggling  worms 
usually  found  in  stagnant  rain  water.  The  contrast  between 
the  dead  water  of  cisterns  and  the  living  water  of  gushing 
fountains,  as  well  as  the  liability  of  cisterns  to  get  out  of 
repair  and  lose  their  water,  furnished  to  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah one  of  his  finest  figures  :  "  My  people  have  committed 
two  evils  ;  they  have  forsaken  me,  the  fountain  of  living 
waters,  and  hewn  them  out  cisterns,  broken  cisterns,  that 
can  hold  no  water."  ^ 

Cisterns  were  sometimes  used  as  dungeons  to  confine  pris- 
oners. The  pit  into  which  Joseph  was  cast  by  his  brethren, 
was  a  cistern  in  the  fields  around  Dothan ;  it  is  said  ex- 
pressly, "  the  pit  was  empty  ;  there  was  no  water  in  it.''  * 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  137. 

2  BibUcal  Researches,  H.  p.  333  [HL  p.  214]. 

3  Jer.  ii.  13.  *  Gen.  xxxvii.  22,  24. 


RESERVOIRS  OR  TANKS.  277 

The  dungeon  into  which  Jeremiah  was  let  down  with  cords, 
was  a  deep  cistern  in  the  court  of  the  prison  ;  in  it  "  there 
was  no  water,  but  mire."  ^ 

Cisterns  for  Grain.  Another  kind  of  cisterns  is  found  in 
the  southern  portion  of  Palestine,  which  serve  for  the  storing 
and  preservation  of  grain  after  it  is  threshed.  The  cisterns 
proper  are  designed  to  receive  and  hold  water  ;  these  are 
intended  to  keep  out  water.  A  dry  spot  is  selected  near  a 
village,  where  all  water  can  readily  be  turned  away  ;  and 
several  of  these  pits  are  usually  constructed  near  together. 
The  form  is  ordinarily  that  of  a  dome  or  bell,  with  a  round 
opening  at  top ;  which,  after  the  grain  is  stored,  is  closed 
and  made  tight  with  cement.  By  covering  the  mouth  over 
with  earth,  such  a  storehouse  may  be  entirely  hidden  from 
robbers  and  enemies.  In  this  dry  soil  grain  may  thus  be 
preserved  sound  for  years,  and  kept  also  from  mice  and  other 
vermin. 

These  granaries  are  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  Judea; 
in  Galilee  small  magazines  of  stone  are  erected.  In  the  vil- 
lage of  Kubab,  southeast  of  Ramleh,  we  had  to  pick  our  way 
with  some  difficulty  among  the  numerous  openings  leading 
to  thes6  subterranean  storehouses.  We  remember  several, 
also,  near  the  village  in  the  Mount  of  Olives.^ 

III.   RESERVOIRS  OR  TANKS. 

The  artificial  reservoirs  or  tanks  for  collecting  and  pre- 
serving water  above  ground,  are  in  the  English  Version 
called  Pools.  The  Hebrew  name  is  Berekah ;  which  reap- 
pears in  the  Arabic  form  Birkeh.    They  are  frequent  in  Pal- 

1  Jcr.  xxxviii.  6;  comp.  xxxvii.  21. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  143.   Comp.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  II,  p.  262. 


278 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


estine ;  especially  in  the  parts  which  are  remote  from  foun- 
tains and  wells ;  and  have  been  constructed  mainly  for  the 
supply  of  flocks  and  herds.  They  are  usually  near  a  village 
and  in  a  valley  or  depression,  where  the  water  can  readily 
be  conducted  into  them.  Sometimes  they  are  formed  merely 
by  a  wall  or  dam  thrown  across  the  valley  ;  at  other  times 
there  is  also  a  wall  at  the  upper  end.  Sometimes  the  rocky 
walls  of  the  valley  serve  for  the  sides ;  or,  again,  both  sides 
and  ends  are  built  up  with  solid  masonry,  forming  a  mas- 
sive quadrangle.  Many  of  the  pools  still  to  be  met  with  are 
ancient.  Indeed,  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  in  Pales- 
tine any  reservoir  of  recent  construction ;  except  one  near 
'Arrabeh  in  Galilee  ;  and  that  was  already  broken. ^ 

What  has  been  said  above  in  respect  to  the  impurity  of 
cistern  water,  holds  true  in  a  higher  degree  of  the  water  of 
open  reservoirs.  It  brings  with  it  all  the  impurities  incident 
to  the  cistern  ;  and  is  further  exposed  to  the  sun  and  dust, 
and  to  the  presence  of  reptiles  and  vermin.  In  not  a  few, 
the  cattle  and  dogs  enter  the  water  at  will ;  and  soon  impart 
to  it  the  taste  and  odor  of  the  stable.  This  water  is  used  by 
the  inhabitants  for  cooking  and  washing ;  and  some  have  no 
other  supply .2 

Some  of  the  largest  of  the  ancient  reservoirs  now  remain- 
ing are  at  Jerusalem,  and  will  be  described  in  connection 
with  the  other  waters  of  the  Holy  City.  Most  of  the  scrip- 
tural allusions  to  '  pools '  refer  to  Jerusalem  ;  indeed,  only 
two  others  are  definitely  mentioned. 

One  of  these  is  at  Hebron.  In  the  south  part  of  the  town, 
in  the  bed  of  the  valley,  is  the  largest  of  the  two  pools  now 
seen  at  Hebron  ;  a  square  reservoir,  measuring  one  hundred 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  84. 

2  Comp.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  I.  p.  316. 


RESERVOIRS  OR  TAXES. 


279 


and  thirty-three  feet  on  each  side,  built  with  hewn  stones  of 
good  workmanship.  The  whole  depth  is  nearly  twenty-nine 
feet ;  of  which  the  water,  in  May,  1826,  occupied  not  quite 
fourteen  feet.  In  the  beginning  of  September,  Rosen  found 
still  several  feet  of  water  in  the  pool  ;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
month  it  was  empty,  and  the  mud  at  bottom  dried  by  the 
sun.  Flights  of  steps  lead  down  into  it  at  each  corner.  Just 
at  the  north  end  of  the  main  part  of  the  town  is  the  smaller 
pool,  also  in  the  bed  of  the  valley,  eighty-five  feet  long  by 
fifty-five  broad ;  its  depth  is  nearly  nineteen  feet,  of  which 
the  water  occupied  not  quite  seven  feet.  These  reservoirs 
seemed  to  furnish  the  main  supply  of  the  town  at  the  time 
(1838),  notwithstanding  the  various  fountains  ;  and  were 
constantly  frequented  by  persons  carrying  away  the  water  in 
skins.  That  of  the  smaller  pool  was  neither  clear  nor  clean. 
The  pools  were  said  to  be  filled  only  by  the  rains  ;  though 
there  is  no  brook  in  the  valley,  even  in  the  rainy  season. 
Rosen  supposes  that  the  pools  themselves  are  ancient ;  but 
that  the  present  masonry  is  modern,  the  work  of  the  Muham- 
medans.  The  larger  and  more  public  of  these  reservoirs  is, 
probably,  the  pool  in  Hebron,"  over  which  David  hanged 
up  the  assassins  of  Ishbosheth.^ 

The  other  scriptural  reference  is  to  the  pool  of  Gib- 
eon."  2  The  fine  fountain  of  Gibeon  is  situated  a  little  east 
of  the  village,  on  the  north  side  of  the  rocky  ridge,  just 
below  the  top  ;  it  is  in  a  cavern  excavated  under  the  high 
rock,  so  as  to  form  a  subterranean  reservoir  of  considerable 
size.  Some  eight  or  ten  rods  below  it,  among  the  olive  trees, 
are  the  remains  of  a  larger  open  reservoir,  similar  to  that 

1  2  Sam.  iv.  12.  Biblical  Researches,  11.  p.  74  [11.  p.  432].  Rosen,  m  Zeitschr. 
der  Deutschen  morg.  Gesellschaft,  1858,  XII.  p.  490. 

2  2  Sam.  ii.  13. 


280 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAOT). 


at  Hebron ;  intended  anciently,  no  doubt,  to  receive  the 
waters  overflowing  from  the  cavern  during  the  rainy  season. 
This  is  probably  the  same  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  as  "  the 
great  waters  in  Gibeon  ; "  so  called  as  compared  with  the 
waters  of  the  cavern.^  Here  took  place  the  challenge  of 
Abner  to  Joab,  and  the  battle  between  their  followers,  ter- 
minated by  the  defeat  and  flight  of  the  former,  and  the  death 
of  Asahel.^ 

The  Psalmist  also  once  refers  to  the  fact,  that  the  rain 
filletli  the  pools,"  as  an  emblem  of  pastoral  and  agricultural 
prosperity.^ 

Among  the  largest  ancient  reservoirs  in  Palestine,  was 
that  at  Bethel,  in  the  shallow  western  valley.  It  measures 
three  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  in  length,  by  two  hundred 
and  seventeen  feet  in  breadth ;  the  walls  were  built  with  mas- 
sive masonry.  The  southern  wall  is  still  entire  ;  those  upon 
the  sides  are  partly  gone  ;  the  northern  one  has  almost  dis- 
appeared. This  large  pool  was  fed  by  two  living  springs 
within  it.* 

At  the  probable  site  of  ancient  Ai,  in  the  western  valley, 
where  the  rocks  at  the  side  are  precipitous  for  a  few  feet  in 
height,  there  are  no  less  than  three  ancient  reservoirs,  mostly 
dug  in  the  rock,  and  having  the  following  dimensions  :  ^ 

Length.  Breadth.  Depth. 

Upper  or  Northern,       .       .    110  feet.  32  feet.  6  feet. 

Middle,        ....     37  26  12 

Lower,         ....     88  22  15 

Other  similar  reservoirs,  or  pools,  of  various  sizes,  have 

1  Jer.  xli.  12.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  455  [II.  p.  13GJ.  Barclay,  City  of  the 
Great  King,  p.  549. 

2  2  Sam.  ii.  12-24.  ^  pg.  Lxxxiv.  6. 
4  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  449  [H.  p.  127]. 

«  Biblical  Researches,- 1,  p.  574  [H.  p.  312]. 


RESERVOIRS  OR  TxiNKS. 


281 


come  down  from  antiquity ;  for  example,  one  at  Ramali  of 
Benjamin  ;  ^  two  or  three  at  Neby  Samwil  (^Mizpelt)  ;  ^  two 
at  el-Bireh  (^Beerotli)  fed  from  tlie  fountain  ;  ^  a  deep  one 
cut  in  the  rock  at  Rummon  (^Rimmon)  ;^  a  large  one  with  a 
high  wall  at  'Akrabeli  in  the  toparchy  of  Acrabatene  ;  ^  and 
in  various  other  places. 

Solomon'' s  Pools.  Of  all  the  ancient  reservoirs  in  the  Holy 
Land,  by  far  the  largest  and  most  important  are  the  three 
immense  tanks  which  the  tradition  of  monks  and  travellers 
knows  only  as  "  Solomon's  Pools  ; "  but  called  by  the  Arabs 
simply  el-Burak,  "  the  Pools."  They  are  situated  an  hour 
southwest  of  Bethlehem  on  the  way  to  Hebron.  They  are  in 
the  open  head  or  basin  of  a  valley  declining  towards  the  east, 
just  above  the  point  where  it  becomes  narrow  and  is  joined 
by  other  nearly  parallel  valleys  in  tlie  south.  The  pools  are 
some  distance  apart ;  each  on  a  different  level,  so  that  the 
bottom  of  the  one  is  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  next 
below ;  and  they  do  not  lie  in  a  straight  line.  As  seen  from 
without,  they  appear  as  massive  structures  built  up  above 
the  ground  ;  the  upper  or  western  end  of  each  being  slightly 
higher  than  the  eastern.  The  following  measurements  were 
taken  in  1838:6 

I.  Eastern  or  Loaver  Pool. 
Length,  582  feet.  Breadth,  east  end  207  feet,  west  end  148  feet. 
Depth  at  east  end,  50  feet ;  of  which  6  feet  water. 

II.  Middle  Tool. 
Distance  above  Lower  Pool,  248  feet. 

Length,  423  feet.  Breadth,  east  end  250  feet,  west  end  160  feet. 
Depth  at  east  end,  39  feet ;  of  which  14  feet  water. 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  287. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  457  [XL  p.  140]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  451  [IL  p.  136]. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  290. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  296. 

6  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  474  [II.  pp.  164,  165]. 
36 


282 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Ill,   Upper  Pool. 
Distance  above  Middle  Pool,  160  feet. 

Length,  380  feet.  Breadth,  east  end  236  feet,  west  end  229  feet. 
Depth  at  east  end,  25  feet ;  of  which  15  feet  water. 

The  walls  of  the  reservoirs  are  built  of  large  hewn  stones. 
The  bottom  is  formed  by  the  naked  shelving  rock,  which 
constitutes  the  bed  of  the  valley,  leaving  only  a  narrow 
channel  along  the  middle,  and  having  several  offsets  or  ter- 
races along  each  side.  The  inside  walls  and  bottoms  of  all 
the  reservoirs,  so  far  as  visible,  are  covered  with  cement ; 
and  the  lower  one,  in  1838,  had  been  recently  repaired. 
Flights  of  steps  lead  down  in  various  places  into  all  the  pools. 
Near  the  northwest  corner  of  the  upper  pool  there  is  now 
an  old  square  Saracenic  castle,  also  called  el-Burak. 

The  main  source  of  supply  for  all  these  reservoirs,  is  a 
sunken  fountain,  situated  in  the  open  and  gradually  ascend- 
ing fields,  about  forty  rods  northwest  of  the  castle.  Here  one 
sees  only  the  narrow  mouth  of  a  well,  which  is  usually  kept 
stopped  with  a  large  stone,  too  heavy  to  be  removed  without 
the  efforts  of  several  men.  The  fountain  is  thus  described 
by  Maundrell :  ^  "  Through  this  hole  you  descend  directly 
down,  but  not  without  some  difficulty,  for  about  four  yards  ; 
and  then  arrive  at  a  vaulted  room  fifteen  paces  long  and 
eight  broad.  Joining  to  this,  is  another  room  of  the  same 
fashion,  but  somewhat  less.  Both  these  rooms  are  covered 
with  handsome  stone  arches,  very  ancient,  and  perhaps  the 
work  of  Solomon  himself.  You  find  here  four  places  at 
which  the  water  rises.  From  these  separate  sources  it  is 
conveyed  by  little  rivulets  into  a  kind  of  basin ;  and  from 
thence  is  carried  by  a  large  subterranean  passage  down  to 
the  pools." 

1  Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,  April  1,  1G97. 


RESERVOIRS  OR  TANKS. 


283 


This  subterranean  passage  terminates  at  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  upper  pool,  in  a  sort  of  artificial  fountain  just 
above  the  latter,  so  arranged  that  the  water  here  divides. 
A  part  passes  off  through  a  small  channel  or  aqueduct,  which 
rnns  along  the  north  side  of  the  pools ;  while  another  part  is 
turned  down  into  a  vaulted  but  not  large  subterranean  cham- 
ber, whence  it  flows  off  through  a  square  passage  to  the  ad- 
jacent upper  pool.  The  aqueduct  above  mentioned  contin- 
ues along  the  north  side  of  all  the  reservoirs,  giving  off  a 
portion  of  its  w^aters  to  the  middle  pool,  and  another  portion 
to  the  lower  one.  It  then  passes  down  a  steep  declivity,  to 
join  a  similar  channel  leading  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
lower  pool,  as  also  another  coming  from  a  parallel  valley  in 
the  north.  There  is  also  a  similar  channel  coming  around 
the  point  of  the  hill  from  higher  up  in  the  southern  valley, 
intended  to  bring  the  waters  of  the  rainy  season  from  that 
quarter  into  the  lower  pool,  about  a  hundred  feet  west  of  its 
lower  end. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  the  lower  pool  a  large  external  abut- 
ment is  built  up,  in  which  is  a  passage  and  a  vaulted  room 
extending  under  the  massive  wall  of  the  reservoir,  quite  up 
near  to  the  water.  This  room  appears  to  be  not  unlike  those 
at  the  sunken  fountain  ;  but  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
constructed  it  is  difficult  to  explain. 

These  pools  furnish  in  summer  a  place  for  bathing  and 
swimming  ;  and  are  sometimes  so  used  by  the  Franks  of 
Jerusalem.^ 

These  great  reservoirs  are  nowhere  mentioned  or  directly 
alluded  to  in  Scripture  ;  nor  is  any  ancient  historical  notice 
of  them  known  to  exist.    The  object  for  which  they  were 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  474-476  [II.  pp.  1G5-1G8].  Barclay,  City  of  the 
Great  King,  pp.  554-557. 


284 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRArilY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


constructed  may  have  been  twofold.  According  to  late  Jew- 
ish writers,  cited  in  the  Talmud,  the  temple  in  Jerusalem 
was  supplied  with  water  by  an  aqueduct  from  the  fountain 
at  Etam,  which  was  on  the  way  to  Hebron.  To  this  day  an 
aqueduct  leads  from  one  of  these  ancient  reservoirs  and 
from  the  fountain  that  feeds  them,  to  the  site  of  the  ancient 
temple.  Here  was  one  object.  And  if  the  gardens  of  Sol- 
omon at  Etam  were  in  the  fertile  valley  below  the  pools,  as 
is  probable,  then  another  use  of  the  latter  may  have  been  to 
supply  water  for  irrigating  these  gardens  during  the  dry 
summer  season.  There  is,  however,  no  visible  arrangement 
for  drawing  off  water,  either  into  the  aqueduct  or  to  the 
valley  below,  except  from  the  lower  pool.^ 

If  such  were  the  objects  for  which  the  pools  were  con- 
structed, their  antiquity  may  well  go  back  to  the  days  of 
Solomon. 

IV.  AQUEDUCTS. 

There  are  several  aqueducts  of  the  middle  ages  near  Jer- 
icho, supported  on  pointed  arches,  and  intended  to  distribute 
over  the  plain,  around  and  north  of  that  place,  the  waters 
of  the  fountain  of  Duk  and  'Ain  es-Sultan.^  There  is  like- 
wise a  modern  aqueduct  in  the  plain  of  'Akka,  bringing 
water  to  the  city.^  The  Haram  at  Hebron  is  also  supplied 
with  water  from  two  or  three  fountains,  by  means  of  modern 
conduits. 

•J     Scripture  speaks  of  three  ancient  conduits  or  aqueducts  at 
;  Jerusalem;  namely,  1.  Siloam,  "which  is  by. interpretation, 
Sent,^^  referring  to  the  subterranean  passage  by  which  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  348  [I.  p.  515]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  5(33,  508  [II.  pp.  298,  304]. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  91. 


AQUEDUCTS. 


285 


pool  of  Siloam  is  fed.  2.  "  The  conduit  of  the  upper  pool," 
bringing  down  its  waters,  as  now,  to  the  city.  3.  The  aque- 
duct mentioned  by  Josephus,  supplying  water  to  the  tower 
of  Ilippicus  and  to  Herod's  palace  on  Zion.^  Possibly  the 
latter  two  are  identical.  They  will  all  be  treated  of  among 
the  waters  of  Jerusalem. 

The  aqueduct  leading  from  Solomon's  Pools  and  the  foun- 
tain which  feeds  them,  to  the  great  mosque  of  Jerusalem,  the 
site  of  the  Jewish  temple,  is  doubtless,  in  great  part  ancient ; 
though,  like  the  pools,  it  is  not  alluded  to  in  Scripture. 
The  fact  recorded  by  Jewish  writers,  cited  in  the  Talmud, 
that  the  temple  was  supplied  with  water  by  an  aqueduct 
from  the  fountain  of  Etam  on  the  way  to  Hebron,  is  con- 
clusive. Josephus  too  relates,  that  Solomon  took  pleasure 
in  Etam,  which  was  fifty  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  and  had 
fine  gardens  and  streams  of  water.  Scripture  names  it 
between  Bethlehem  and  Tekoa.^ 

The  beginning  of  the  aqueduct,  at  the  fountain  and  at  the 
lower  pool,  has  been  described  above.  From  thence  it  winds 
along  the  sides  of  the  hills,  preserving  its  level,  until  it 
reaches  the  southern  slope  of  the  hill  on  wliich  Bethlehem 
stands.  Here  is  a  cistern,  or  rather  reservoir,  at  some  depth 
below  the  surface,  through  which  the  water  flows,  and  from 
which  it  is  drawn  up  with  buckets  to  supply  the  inhabitants. 
From  this  point  it  is  carried  by  a  tunnel  through  the  hill, 
below  the  saddle  lying  between  the  town  and  the  convent. 
Hence  it  is  again  conducted  along  the  slopes  of  the  hills  pass- 
ing just  on  the  south  and  east  of  the  convent  Mar  EUas  ;  it 

1  John  ix,  7;  Isa.  vii.  3;  2  Kings  xviii.  17.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  5.  7.  3.  Ibid., 
2.  17.  9. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  348  [I.  p.  515].  Joseph.  Antiq.,  8.  7.  3.  2  Chron. 
xi.  C. 


286 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


is  seen  on  the  east  of  the  plain  of  Rephaim,  and  is  brought 
into  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  which  it  crosses  on  low  arches  at 
a  point  a  little  north  of  the  southwest  corner  of  the  city  wall. 
It  then  passes  along  the  southern  and  eastern  slopes  of  Zion, 
and  entering  the  city  is  carried  by  an  excavated  tunnel  for 
some  distance  along  the  eastern  perpendicular  face  of  Zion  ; 
and  at  last  crosses  on  the  mound  leading  to  the  Haram. 
In  1838  water  was  flowing  in  the  aqueduct  as  far  as  to  some 
distance  north  of  Bethlehem  ;  but  did  not  reach  Jerusalem. 

The  channel  of  the  aqueduct  is  usually  conducted  along 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  For  some  distance  from  the  pools 
and  in  other  places,  it  is  laid  with  tubes  of  red  pottery, 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches  long  and  eight  or  ten  inches  in  di- 
ameter, cemented  into  each  other.  Afterwards,  for  mucli  of 
the  way,  it  consists  merely  of  stones  laid  in  cement,  forming 
a  small  covered  channel  of  perhaps  a  foot  in  breadth  and 
depth.  There  are  occasional  openings,  which  serve  as  ven- 
tilators, through  wliich  also  water  may  be  obtained. ^ 

But  the  present  channel  and  course  of  the  aqueduct  are 
not  everywhere  the  most  ancient.  On  the  gentle  acclivity 
northeast  of  Rachel's  Sepulchre,  up  wliich  passes  the  Hebron 
and  Jerusalem  road,  are  still  seen  the  traces  of  a  more  an- 
cient aqueduct.  It  was  obviously  carried  up  the  slope  by 
means  of  tubes  or  perforated  blocks  of  stone,  fitted  together 
with  sockets  and  tenons,  and  originally  cemented.  These 
blocks  are  seen  for  some  distance  up  the  acclivity ;  and  the 
aqueduct  crossed  a  saddle  in  the  ridge  just  north,  in  a  mass 
of  large  hewn  stones,  which  yet  remain.  This  could  only 
have  been  an  ancient  channel  of  the  aqueduct  from  Solo- 
mon's Pools  ;  which  at  the  present  day  is  carried  around  the 

1  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  347  [L  p.  514j.  Toblcr,  Dritte  Wandcrung,  p.  84. 
Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  Kinj^,  p.  557. 


AQUEDUCTS. 


287 


eastern  end  of  the  same  ridge.  The  circumstances  show 
that  the  ancient  builders  were  acquainted  with  the  fact,  that 
water  in  a  close  aqueduct  rises  to  the  level  of  its  source. 
The  remains  of  an  ancient  aqueduct,  constructed  on  the 
like  principle,  are  seen  between  Beit  Miry  and  Brummana 
on  Lebanon.! 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  273,  285;  comp.  p.  17. 


/ 


CHAPTER  III. 


CLIMATE. 

The  parallels  of  north  latitude  which  embrace  Palestine, 
(31°  to  3o°  16),  if  extended  westward,  pass  wholly  south  of 
Greece  and  its  islands,  of  Italy  and  its  islands,  and  of  Spain. 
They  strike  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, or  the  Gulf  States  so  called.  These  circumstances, 
together  with  the  general  position  and  physical  features  of 
the  country,  remove  tlie  Holy  Land  from  any  relations  of 
climate  with  southern  and  western  Europe  and  the  north- 
ern American  States ;  and  bring  it  more  into  analogy  with 
northern  Africa  and  the  Gulf  States  of  America. 

I.  SEASONS.^ 

The  occidental  division  of  the  year  into  four  seasons  is 
not  applicable  to  Palestine,  and  is  unknown  in  Scripture. 
The  Bible  makes  mention  only  of  summer  and  winter  ;  the 
latter  as  the  season  of  rain.^  There  is  no  allusion  in  the 
Old  Testament  or  the  New,  in  Hebrew  or  in  the  English 
Version,  to  the  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn. 

1  See  generally  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  428-431  [II.  pp.  96-100].  Comp.  also 
Tobler,  Dcnkbl.,  pp.  1-35.   Dritte  Wanderunfr,  pp.  206-211. 

2  Gen.  viii.  22;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  17;  Zech.  xiv.  8;  Cant.  ii.  11. 


SEASONS. 


289 


At  the  prcsont  day  the  division  of  seasons  is  the  same  as 
of  old.  The  variations  of  rain  and  sunshine,  wliicli  in  the 
west  exist  more  or  less  throughout  the  whole  year,  are  in 
Palestine  confined  chiefly  to  the  interval  between  the  latter 
part  of  October  and  the  early  part  of  April,  a  period  of  not 
yet  six  montlis  ;  while  the  remaining  months  enjoy  almost 
uninterruptedly  a  cloudless  sky. 

Winter  or  the  Rainy  Season.  The  rains  usually  begin 
to  fall  in  the  latter  half  of  October  or  beginning  of  No- 
vember ;  not  suddenly,  but  by  degrees.  This  gives  to  the 
husbandman  time  and  opportunity  to  plough  his  ground  and 
SQW  his  fields  of  winter  wheat  and  barley.  The  rains  in- 
crease for  some  time,  coming  mostly  from  the  west  and 
southwest ;  they  last  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time,  falling 
especially  during  the  night.  Then  the  wind  chops  round 
to  the  north  or  east,  and  several  days  of  fine  weather  succeed. 
This  alternation  of  groups  of  rainy  days,  followed  by  longer 
intervals  of  sunshine,  continues  through  the  winter.  Dur- 
ing the  months  of  November  and  December,  the  rains  still 
fall  heavily  ;  afterwards  they  return  only  at  longer  intervals, 
and  are  less  heavy  ;  but  at  no  period  during  the  winter 
do  they  entirely  cease  to  occur.  During  these  intervals  of 
fine  weather,  the  husbandman  sows  a  later  crop  of  barley, 
and  also  his  summer  grains.^  The  rains  usually  continue 
to  fall  more  or  less  through  the  month  of  March ;  but  are 
rare  after  that  period.  In  18-38,  there  was  little  or  no  rain 
in  March  ;  and  the  whole  quantity  of  rain  was  less  than 
usual.  In  1852  the  rains  were  abundant,  and  lasted  through 
the  first  week  of  April.  The  rains  are  often  accompanied 
by  thunder  and  lightning. 

Observations  made  in  Jerusalem  give  the  following  results 

1  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  pp.  421,  422. 
37 


290  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


as  to  the  proportion  of  rainy  days  at  that  point  during  the 
winter  seasons  of  1843  and  1845. 

1843-4.  The  rain  began  with  a  thunder-shower,  Oct.  25. 
In  November  rain  fell  on  seventeen  days ;  in  December 
thirteen  days,  and  once  snow;  January,  eight  days,  and 
twice  frost  at  night ;  February,  seven  days  ;  March,  ten  days  ; 
April,  eight  days,  the  month  being  colder  than  usual.  There 
were  also  showers  on  five  days  in  May.^ 

1845-6.  In  November  rain  fell  on  four  days ;  December, 
tliirteen  days  ;  January,  thirteen  days  ;  February,  eleven 
days  ;  to  March  18,  two  days.  But  during  the  whole  winter, 
there  was  no  day  in  which  the  sun  was  not  visible  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time.^ 

Snow  often  falls  at  Jerusalem  and  in  the  hill-country, 
mostly  in  January  and  February,  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or 
more ;  but  does  not  long  remain.  In  February,  1797,  a 
deep  snow  lay  for  twelve  or  thirteen  days  at  Jerusalem  ;  and 
in  1818,  it  lay  over  a  foot  deep  for  five  days.^  On  the  9th 
of  January,  1807,  Seetzen,  being  at  Jericho,  saw  the  oppo- 
site mountains  of  'Ajlun,  the  Belka,  and  Kerak,  covered  al- 
most to  their  foot  witli  snow,  which  had  fallen  during  the 
night ;  though  not  a  flake  had  fallen  in  all  the  Ghor.  The 
mountains  around  Jerusalem  were  in  like  manner  covered 
the  same  night  ;  and  the  snow  lay  for  several  days.*  In 
the  winter  of  1820,  there  was  snow  upon  the  hills  of  Gal- 
ilee, but  only  for  four  hours.^ 

Hail  falls  in  the  hill-country,  in  the  rainy  season,  more 

1  Lanneau,  in  Monatsb.  dcr  Berliner  Ges.  fUr  Erdk.,  1847-48,  p.  48. 

2  Tobler,  Dcnkbl.,  p.  2L 

3  Brown's  Travels,  p.  3GL    Scholz,  Reise,  p.  138. 
♦  Seetzen,  Reisen,  IL  p.  300. 

Scholz,  Reise,  pp.  137,  138.  For  falls  of  snow  in  various  other  years,  see 
Tobler,  Dritte  Wanderung,  p.  210. 


SEASONS. 


291 


frequently  than  snow ;  but  does  not  in  general  occasion 
much  damage.  Fine  hail  mingled  with  rain  is  very  com- 
mon ;  occasionally  it  falls  as  large  as  peas  or  beans,  and 
sometimes  much  larger.^  Scholz  relates,  that  while  he  was 
at  Nazareth,  early  in  1821,  violent  hail  occurred  several 
times  ;  some  of  the  hailstones  being  as  large  as  a  pigeon's 
egg.2 

Frost  is  not  frequent ;  the  ground  itself  never  freezes. 
But  Mr.  Whiting,  during  a  residence  of  several  years  in  Je- 
rusalem, had  seen  the  pool  of  Hezekiah,  upon  which  his 
house  joined,  covered  with  thin  ice  for  one  or  two  days.^ 

During  the  whole  winter  the  roads,  or  rather  tracks,  in 
Palestine,  are  muddy,  deep,  and  slippery  ;  so  that  the  travel- 
ler at  this  season  is  subjected  to  great  inconvenience  and 
discomfort.  When  the  rains  cease,  the  mud  soon  dries  up, 
and  the  roads  become  hard,  though  never  smooth.  Who- 
ever therefore  wishes  to  profit  most  by  a  journey  in  Pal- 
estine, will  take  care  not  to  arrive  at  Jerusalem  earlier  than 
the  latter  part  of  March. 

Early  and  Latter  Rain.  Scripture  speaks  in  various  places 
of  the  early  (or  former')  and  the  latter  rain,  as  essential  for 
the  abundance  of  the  crops  and  the  prosperity  of  the  land.^ 
These  naturally  correspond  to  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
rainy  season.  But  the  terms  '  early  '  and  '  latter  '  may  also 
be  accounted  for  in  part  from  the  fact,  that  while  the  eccle- 
siastical year  of  the  Hebrews  began  with  the  month  Nisan, 
not  far  from  the  vernal  equinox,  their  more  ancient  secular 

1  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  52. 

2  Scholz,  Eeise,  p.  138. 

3  Comp.  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  50. 

*Deut.  xi.  14;  Jer.  v.  24;  Hos.  vi.  3;  Joel  ii.  23;  James  v.  7.  Latter  rain, 
Prov.  xvi.  15;  Jer.  iii.  3;  Zech.  x.  1. 


292 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


and  agricultural  year  began  six  months  later,  with  the  month 
Tisri,  about  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equinox.^ 

But  there  are  no  definite  and  distinct  seasons  of  early 
and  latter  rain,  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  rainy  season. 
The  whole  period  from  October  to  xVpril  constitutes  only  one 
continued  season  in  which  rain  falls  ;  without  any  regularly 
intervening  term  of  prolonged  fair  weather.  Hence  the 
early  rain  was  the  first  showers  in  October  and  November, 
which  revived  the  parched  and  thirsty  earth,  and  prepared 
it  for  ploughing  and  the  seed.  The  latter  rain,  on  the  otlicr 
hand,  was  the  later  showers  which  continue  to  fall  in  March 
and  April,  and  serve  to  refresh  and  forward  both  the  ripening 
crops  and  the  springing  verdure  of  the  fields. 

Should  the  early  rain  fail,  or  be  too  long  delayed,  so  that 
the  rainy  season  should  begin  at  once  with  heavy  and  con- 
stant showers,  there  would  be  no  opportunity  for  the  hus- 
bandman to  plough  his  ground  or  sow  his  seed ;  and  there 
could  be  no  crop.  Or,  if  the  latter  rain,  the  showers  of 
March  and  April,  do  not  take  place,  the  ripening  grain  and 
springing  verdure  are  arrested,  and  do  not  reach  their  full 
maturity.  In  such  case  the  crops  are  diminished,  or  fail 
altogetlier.2  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  latter  rain  occurs 
in  full,  the  husbandman  is  never  disappointed  in  his  harvest. 
In  1852,  these  rains  were  sometimes  heavy,  and  continued 
into  the  second  week  of  April.  The  result  we  saw  during 
our  subsequent  journey,  in  the  very  abundant  crops  through- 
out the  country.^ 

Summer  or  the  Dry  Season".  During  the  months  of  April 
and  May,  the  sky  is  usually  serene,  the  air  mild  and  balmy; 
and  the  face  of  nature,  after  a  season  of  ordinary  rain,  con- 


1  Ex.  xii.  2;  Lev.  xxv.  9,  10. 

8  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  9,  30. 


2  Comp.  Amos  iv.  7. 


SEASONS. 


293 


tin  lies  green  and  pleasant  to  the  eye.  Showers  occur  occa- 
sionally, but  they  are  mild  and  refreshing.  In  1838,  there 
were  showers  in  Jerusalem  on  the  first  of  May ;  and  at  eve- 
ning there  was  thunder  and  lightning,  with  pleasant  and 
reviving  rain.  The  6th  of  May  was  also  remarkable  for 
thunder  and  for  several  showers,  some  of  which  were  quite 
heavy.  The  rains  of  both  these  days  extended  far  to  the 
north  of  Jerusalem,  But  the  occurrence  of  rain  so  late  in 
the  season  was  regarded  as  unusual ;  though,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  1844  rain  fell  on  five  days  in  the  month  of  May. 

In  ordinary  seasons,  from  the  cessation  of  the  showers  in 
April  or  May,  until  their  commencement  in  October  or  No- 
vember, rain  never  falls  in  Palestine,  and  the  sky  is  usually 
serene.  If  during  the  winter  season  there  has  been  the  or- 
dinary and  full  supply  of  rain,  the  husbandman  is  certain  of 
his  crops ;  and  he  is  also  perfectly  sure  of  fine  weather  for 
the  ingathering  of  the  harvest.  "  Snow  in  summer  and  rain 
in  harvest "  were  things  incomprehensible  to  the  Hebrew. 
Thunder  and  rain  in  wheat  harvest  occurred  once  by  miracle 
in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  Samuel.^ 

The  atmosphere  is  in  general  clear  and  fine  ;  especially  at 
the  high  elevation  of  Jerusalem ;  nor  does  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer become  oppressive,  except  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
south  wind,  or  sirocco.  Yet  the  total  absence  of  rain  soon 
destroys  the  verdure  of  the  fields  ;  and  gives  to  the  whole 
landscape  the  aspect  of  drought  and  barrenness.  The  only 
green  thing  which  remains,  is  the  foliage  of  the  scattered 
fruit  trees  and  shrubs,  and  occasional  vineyards  and  fields 
of  millet.  The  deep  green  of  the  broad  fig  leaves  and  the 
lighter  shade  of  the  millet  is  delightful  to  the  eye  amid  the 


1  Prov.  xxvi.  1 ;  1  Sam.  xii.  17,  18. 


294: 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


general  aridness ;  while  the  foliage  of  the  olive,  with  its  dull 
grayish  hue,  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of  verdure. 

Later  in  the  season,  tlie  whole  land  has  become  dry  and 
parched ;  the  cisterns  are  nearly  empty  ;  the  few  streams 
and  fountains  fail ;  and  all  nature,  physical  and  animal,  looks 
forward  with  longing  to  the  return  of  the  rainy  season. 
Mists  and  clouds  begin  to  appear,  and  showers  occasionally 
fall ;  the  husbandman  prepares  his  ground  and  sows  his  seed ; 
and  the  thirsty  earth  is  soon  drenched  witli  an  abundance  of 
rain. 

Fogs.  For  some  time  after  the  rains,  vapor  continues  to 
rise  from  the  earth,  and  gathers,  as  fog,  in  the  valleys  and 
low  places.  Thus,  in  1838,  in  the  morning  of  May  18, 
being  at  Beit  Nettif,  we  beheld  all  the  lower  tract  of  hill- 
country  enveloped  in  a  dense  fog,  above  which  the  tops  of 
the  hills  were  seen  like  islands;  but  the  fog  soon  "passed 
away.i  Later  still  the  vapor  in  the  atmosphere  continues  to 
gather  around  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  forming  light  morn- 
ing clouds.  This  we  experienced  on  Mount  Tabor,  on  the  19th 
of  June ;  about  half  an  hour  after  sunrise,  a  fog  came  on, 
forming  a  cloud  around  the  summit,  which  veiled  everything 
below  from  our  view  ;  it  soon,  however,  dispersed,  and  left  a 
clear  atmosphere  and  a  glorious  prospect.^  Early  in  August 
light  white  clouds  come  up  over  the  land  from  the  south- 
west ;  but  seem  to  produce  no  further  clfect  upon  the  atmos- 
phere.^ 

Dew.  During  the  fair  weather  of  winter,  and  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  dry  season,  dew  falls  at  night,  and  in  gen- 
eral heavily  ;  and  serves  to  refresh  the  languishing  vegetation. 

1  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  19  [11.  p.  347]. 

2  See  Biblical  Researches,  H.  p.  3G8  [HL  p.  235]. 
8  Schultz,  Tories.,  p.  28. 


TEMPERATURE. 


295 


On  the  morning  of  March  23,  Maundrell's  tents  were  wet 
with  dew  at  Lejjun,  as  if  it  had  rained  all  night;  and  on 
June  19,  our  own  tent  was  wet  as  with  rain  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Tabor.i  At  Jerusalem  the  heavy  dews  contribute 
something  to  the  coolness  of  the  nights.^ 

II.  TEMPERATURE. 

The  local  temperature  of  Palestine  is  greatly  affected  by 
the  physical  division  of  the  country  into  the  four  long  and 
narrow  parallel  tracts  or  strips  of  territory,  of  different  eleva- 
tion, which  have  been  already  described.^  The  western  plain 
rises  but  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  while 
the  Ghor,  or  valley  of  the  Jordan,  is  depressed  several  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  same.  The  western  hill-country  around 
Jerusalem  and  Hebron  is  elevated  two  thousand  five  hundred 
and  two  thousand  seven  hundred  feet  above  the  sea ;  while 
the  hill-country  east  of  Jordan,  which  reaches  an  elevation 
of  three  thousand  feet  around  Kerak  and  in  the  Belka,  rises 
to  five  thousand  feet  in  the  mountains  of  'Ajlun.  The  dif- 
ference of  level  between  Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea,  is 
about  three  thousand  nine  hundred  feet,  or  very  nearly  three 
fourths  of  a  mile. 

Western  Hill- Country.  The  climate  of  Jerusalem  is  in 
general  cool  and  pleasant ;  and  is  never  oppressively  warm, 
except  during  the  continuance  of  a  Sirocco  or  south  wind. 
While  the  Frank  residents  at  Beyrut  and  Damascus  are 
driven  during  the  hot  months  to  the  mountains,  those  of 
Jerusalem,  though  they  may  leave  the  city  or  camp  outside 
of  it,  because  of  the.  miasma  arising  from  the  accumulated 

1  Maundrell,  March  22.   Biblical  Researches,  11.  p.  368  [III.  p.  235]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  428  sq.  [II.  p.  96  sq.]. 
s  See  above,  p.  19. 


29 G  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


rubbish  of  centuries,  would  have  to  travel  far  before  they 
could  find  a  cooler  or  healthier  spot.  The  nights  are  uni- 
formly cool,  often  with  a  heavy  dew ;  and  our  friends,  who 
liad  resided  for  years  in  the  city,  had  never  had  occasion  to 
dispense  with  a  coverlet  upon  their  beds  during  summer. 

During  our  sojourn  at  Jerusalem  in  1838,  from  April  14 
to  May  6,  the  mercury  ranged  at  sunrise  from  44°  to  64°  F. 
and  at  2  p.  M.  from  G0°  to  79°  F.  This  last  degree  of  heat 
was  during  a  Sirocco,  April  80.  Again,  from  the  10th  to  the 
13th  of  June,  we  had  at  sunrise  a  range  from  50°  to  74° ;  and 
at  2  p.  M.  once  8G°,  with  a  strong  northwest  wind.  Yet  the 
air  was  fine,  and  the  heat  not  burdensome. 

During  May,  1843,  according  to  observations  by  Mr. 
Whiting,  the  monthly  mean  at  Jerusalem  was  67°  89°  F. 
The  warmest  day  was  the  14th,  with  a  Sirocco,  when  the 
mercury  was  at  sunrise, 70°  ;  at  2  p.  m.  86°  ;  at  3  p.  M.  90° ; 
at  sunset,75°  ;  mean,  80°  25,  F.  The  coldest  day  was  the  4th, 
marked  as  winter  weather,  when  the  mercury  stood  at  sun- 
rise, 49° ;  at  2  P.M.  49°;  at  sunset,  50°;  mean,  49°  33  F. 
The  above  high  monthly  mean  was  owing  to  the  prevalence 
of  easterly  (Sirocco)  winds  during  ten  days  of  the  month  ; 
while  the  wind  blew  from  the  west  only  eighteen  days ;  from 
the  north  one  day;  and  was  'variable'  two  days.  There 
were  two  days  with  rain.^ 

For  the  year  beginning  with  June  1843,  and  ending  with 
May  1844,  we  have  the  following  summary  of  the  mean 
temperature,  as  resulting  from  observations  kept  by  Mr.  Lan- 
neau :  ^ 

1  Bibliothea  Sacra,  1814,  p.  222. 

s  Monatsb.  der  Berliner  Ges.  fiir  Erdk.,  1847-48,  p.  49. 


TEMPERATURE. 


207 


1843, 

June, 

Monthly 
o 

71.66  F. 

"Warmest  Day, 
Mean. 

o 

18th,  79.0  F. 

Coldest  Day, 
o 

8th,    61.0  F. 

Bemarks. 
No  rain. 

July, 

77.3 

20th, 

86.3 

6ih,  71.3 

No  rain. 

Aug. 

72.7 

3a, 

82.0 

29th,  67.0 

No  rain. 

Sept. 

72.24 

3d, 

72.7 

20th,  66.0 

No  rain. 

Oct. 

66.63 

2d, 

84.6 

27th,  62.6 

First  shower,  Oct.  25. 

Nov. 

59.4 

1st, 

72  0 

24th,  49.0 

Kain  on  17  days. 

Dec. 

47.9 

2d, 

53.6 

21st,  41.6 

Rain  on  13  days,  snow  once. 

1844, 

Jan. 

47.6 

ISth, 

54.0 

2d,  35.0 

Rain  on  8  days,  twice  frost. 

Feb. 

54.2 

14th, 

60.6 

19th,  49.0 

Eain  on  7  days. 

March, 

57.7 

21st, 

66.0 

5th,  50.0 

Rain  on  10  days. 

April, 

53.2 

29th, 

66.0 

15th,  42.0 

Rain  on  8  days. 

May, 

65.8 

20th, 

74.6 

5th,  60.6 

Rain  on  5  days. 

The  month  of  April  was  colder  than  usual, 


The  above  gives  the  mean  temperature  of  62°  46  for  that 
year  at  Jerusalem. 

From  Juue  1851  to  January  1855,  inclusive,  Dr.  Barclay 
kept  a  record  of  observations  in  the  Holy  City.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  different  months  is  given  in  the  following 
table  :  ^ 

Jan.   Feb.  Mar.   Apr.   May.   Juue.   July.   Aug.   Sept.    Oct.    Nov.  Dec. 
ooooooo         o         o         o  oo 
1851,   72.8    79.8    78.2    75.0    72.3    67.0  53.3 

1852,  49.6  52.1    56.0   62.2    69.6    73.8    78.0    78.0    74.1    76.6    62.7  55.3 

1853,  51.4  60.4  60.2  64.0  77.6  77.3  78.0  80.0  80.2  74.9  61.1  52.9 
18.54,    49.6  50.8   51.0   58.1    74.1    76.9    80.8    80.9    77.3    72.9    64.3  56.6 

1855,  47.1  

Mean,  49.4  54.4   55.7    61.4    73.8    75.2    79.1    79.3    77.0    74.2    63.8  54.5 

It  appears  from  these  data  that  the  yearly  mean  during  this 
period  was  66°  5  F.,  while  that  of  Boston  is  given  at  49°  ;  of 
Philadelphia  at  52°  ;  of  New  Orleans  at  62°.  January  was 
the  coldest  month  ;  July  and  August  the  hottest.  The  high- 
est elevation  of  the  mercury  was  92°  F.  the  low<=>st,  on  one 

1  Barclay,  City  of  Great  King,  p.  428. 


298 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


occasion  just  before  sunrise,  was  28°.  Pellicles  of  ice  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  were  formed,  and  remained  in  the 
shade  the  whole  day.  We  have  seen  above  that  the  like 
thin  ice  is  sometimes  formed  on  the  pool  of  Hezekiah.^ 

What  is  true  of  Jerusalem,  naturally  holds  good  in  general 
of  the  whole  hill-country  west  of  Jordan  ;  except  so  far  as 
the  southern  part  is  higher  than  the  northern.  Few  obser- 
vations have  been  made,  however,  away  from  the  Holy  City. 
In  1838,  we  came  from  Teffuh  to  Hebron  in  a  violent  and 
hazy  Sirocco,  with  the  mercury  at  80°  F.  It  cleared  away 
at  evening,  with  the  wind  N.  W.  and  the  mercury  at  65°. 
During  the  next  fine  days.  May  24-27,  and  June  5,  the 
mercury  ranged  at  sunrise  between  43°  and  01°  ;  at  10  a.  m. 
between  68°  and  80°  ;  at  2  p.  m.  between  71°  and  80°  ;  at 
sunset,  between  51°  and  71°  ;  the  weather  the  wliole  time 
being  clear  and  fine,  with  the  wind  N.  W.  In  passing,  in 
June  of  the  same  year,  from  Nabulus  by  Nazareth  and  Tabor 
to  Safed  and  Bint  Jebeil,  the  thermometer  at  sunrise  was 
nearest  64°  F. ;  at  2  p.m.  mostly  from  78°  to  82°  ;  and  at  sun- 
set from  70°  to  74°.  On  one  day,  June  17,  at  Nazareth,  it 
stood  for  several  hours  at  88°  with  a  clear  sky  and  south  wind. 
On  the  next  day,  on  the  way  to  Tabor,  there  was  a  violent 
Sirocco  and  haze  from  the  south castywith  the  mercury  at  10 
A.  M.  98°,  and  at  2  p.  m.  95° ;  while  at  sunset  on  Tabor  it 
was  74°,  with  westerly  wind.^ 

Western  Plain.  In  the  western  plain,  which  is  little  ele- 
vated above  the  Mediterranean,  very  few  observations  have 
been  made.  The  mean  temperature  of  that  tract,  however, 
must  naturally  be  some  degrees  higher  than  at  Jerusalem; 
since  the  difference  of  elevation  is  more  than  two  thousand 

1  Barclay,  City  of  Great  King,  p.  428. 

2  See  the  observations  as  recorded  in  the  Itinerary,  Biblical  Researches  II.  [III.] 


TEMPERATURE. 


299 


feet ;  and  the  harvest  in  the  plain  ripens  a  fortnight  earlier 
than  on  the  mountains. ^  On  tlie  7tli  of  June,  at  Terkiimieh, 
the  thermometer  at  2  p.  m.  stood  at  97°  F.,  with  a  bright  sky 
and  N.  W.  wind.  At  sunrise  it  had  stood  at  72° ;  and  at 
sunset  was  88°,  at  Beit  Ncttif.  The  next  day  was  remarka- 
ble. The  mercury  at  sunrise  was  at  83°  ;  at  11  a.  m.  94° ;  at 
noon,  105°  ;  at  2  p.  m.  97°  ;  and  at  sunset,  90°.  The  air  was 
very  hot,  with  a  slight  haze,  and  a  strong  wind  from  the  N. 
W.  coming  directly  from  the  sea,  which  was  less  than  ten 
miles  distant.  The  point  105°  at  noon,  was  at  Ekron ;  the 
thermometer  being  on  the  ground,  in  the  best  shade  that 
could  be  obtained. 

Valley  of  Jordan.  In  this  sunken  valley,  the  Ghor,  which 
in  its  lowest  part,  the  Dead  Sea,  is  thirteen  hundred  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  about  three  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  feet  lower  than  Jerusalem,  we  must  of 
course  expect  a  very  different  temperature.  We  find  ac- 
cordingly, to  a  great  extent,  an  Egyptian  climate,  and  many 
Egyptian  productions.  In  this  tract,  also,  very  few  observa- 
tions have  been  made. 

Lynch,  in  descending  the  Jordan,  April  8-18,  had  a  range 
of  the  mercury,  at  8  a.  m.  from  6G°  to  69°  F. ;  at  noon,  from 
69°  to  88°  ;  at  8  p.  m.  from  62°  to  70°.  During  seven  days 
on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  April  19-25,  the  mercury 
stood,  at  6  A.  M.  on  two  days,  78°;  at  8  a.  m.  on  two  days,  88°  ; 
and  at  noon  on  three  days,  86°,  89°,  90°.  On  the  three  days 
before  the  Expedition  left  the  Ghor,  May  6,  7,  8,  the  heat 
had  increased.  On  the  6th,  the  mercury,  at  8  a.  m.  was  92°  ; 
at  noon,  97°;  at  2  p.  m.  102°.  On  the  7th,  at  8  a.  m.  84° ; 
at  11  A.  M.  106° ;  at  4  p.  m.  9S°  ;  while  at  6  p.  m.  there  was  a 

1  For  the  observations  made  durinfj  our  journey  in  May  and  June,  1838,  see  the 
Itineraiy,  as  above. 


300 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


sudden  and  violent  gust  of  hot  wind  from  the  eastward, 
which  overthrew  all  the  tents.  On  the  8th,  at  noon,  the 
mercury  rose  to  110°  in  the  shade.^ 

In  1838,  we  were  for  three  and  a  half  days  in  the  Gh3r, 
May  10-14,  passing  between  'Ain  Jidy  and  Jericho.  The 
record  of  these  days  was  as  follows : 

Sunrise.       10  a.  m.        2  p.  ra.  Sunset, 
o  o  o  o 

May  10,  80.0      at  'Ain  Jidy. 

11,  68.0  85.0  78.0 

12,  70.0  84.0  78.0 

13,  70.0  86.0  91.0  76.0  atJciicho. 

14,  64.0 

The  wind  during  this  time  was  variable.  On  May  29  and 
30,  we  were  at  the  southern  quarter  of  the  sea,  on  our  way 
to  Petra.  The  mercury  ranged  as  follows:  May  20,  sun- 
rise, 70° ;  2  P.M.  92°  ;  sunset,  88°.  On  the  30th,  sunrise,  69°  ; 
10  A.M.  96°  ;  noon,  102°  ;  2  p.m.  96°  ;  sunset,  76°;  the  lat- 
ter at  the  top  of  the  pass  Nemela.  The  heat  at  noon  was 
connected  with  a  fierce  Sirocco  and  haze  from  the  S.  W. 

On  the  20th  of  June,  we  were  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
lake  of  Tiberias.  At  Tiberias,  on  the  19th,  at  sunset,  we  had 
80°  F.  On  the  20th,  at  sunrise,  75°  ;  2  p.m.  95°  ;  sunset,  85° ; 
with  clear  sky  and  a  strong  S.  W.  wind  or  Sirocco.  At  sun- 
rise on  the  21st,  we  had  71°. 

Among  the  more  southern  productions  of  the  GhOr,  are 
the  Nubk  or  Egyptian  lote-tree,  called  also  Dom ;  and  the 
'Osher,  or  apple  of  Sodom,  which  grows  also  in  Nubia.  The 
little  plain  of  Gennesareth,  described  by  Josephus  as  so  fertile 
and  rich  in  various  fruits,  owed  much  of  its  celebrity  to  its 
climate  and  the  convenient  irrigation.^ 

Eastern  Hill- Country.    In  all  this  region  we  have  no  ob- 

1  Lynch,  Official  Report,  p.  74;  comp.  pp.  41,  42. 

2  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.,  3.  10.  8. 


TEMPERATURE. 


301 


servations  relating  to  the  climate,  except  the  occasional  re- 
marks of  passing  travellers.  But  the  elevation  of  the  region, 
and  its  relative  position,  naturally  lead  to  the  conclusion, 
that  its  climate  is  not,  in  general,  unlike  that  of  the  western 
hill-countrj.  In  the  broad  volcanic  plains  of  Hauran,  how- 
ever, it  would  be  no  less  natural  to  look  for  a  mean  temper- 
ature of  the  summer  months  somewhat  higher  than  that  of 
the  corresponding  western  tracts. 

Times  of  Hai'vest.  The  different  mean  temperatures  pre- 
vailing in  the  three  western  parallel  divisions  of  Palestine, 
as  they  are  exemplified  in  the  earlier  or  later  harvest  time, 
fell  under  our  personal  observation  in  1838.  The  barley 
harvest  usually  precedes  the  wheat  harvest  by  a  fortnight  or 
three  weeks. 

On  the  13th  of  May,  we  wore  at  Jericho,  where  the  people 
of  Taiyibeh,  who  had  sown  the  neighboring  fields  on  shares, 
were  just  completing  their  harvest.  The  harvest  week  might 
be  reckoned  from  the  7th  to  the  14tli.  The  barley  harvest 
had  been  finished  three  weeks  before ;  that  is,  about  April 
22.  Three  days  earlier  (May  10)  we  had  left  the  wheat 
still  green  upon  the  fields  around  Hebron  and  Carmel.^  In 
1852,  on  the  14th  and  15tli  of  May,  tlie  harvesting  was  in 
full  progress  in  the  Ghor  south  of  Beisan,  and  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Jordan  ;  while  at  Pella,  which  is  somewhat  more 
elevated,  the  grain  was  ripe,  but  the  harvesting  was  not  yet 
begun. 2 

From  the  18th  to  the  23d  of  May,  1838,  we  were  in  the 
western  plain  and  at  Gaza ;  the  people  being  then  in  the 
midst  of  wheat  harvest.    Iii  the  western  part  of  the  great 

*  Biblical  Researches,  I.  pp.  550,  551;  comp.  p.  431  [II.  pp.  270-278;  comp. 
p.  90]. 

«  Later  Biblical  Researclies,  pp.  314,  317,  320. 


302  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


plain,  it  was  perhaps  two  or  three  days  more  forward  than 
among  the  tract  of  low  liills  on  the  east.  The  harvest  time 
continued  apparently  about  ten  days,  from  the  15th  to  the 
25th  of  May.  But  the  grain  was  not  always  trodden  out 
immediately.^ 

On  the  4th  and  5th  of  June,  1838,  as  we  returned  from 
Petra,  the  people  of  Hebron  were  just  beginning  to  gather 
their  wheat;  and  on  the  11th  and  12th  the  threshing-floors 
on  the  Mount  of  Ohves  were  in  full  operation.  As  we  trav- 
elled northward,  on  the  13th  and  the  following  days,  the 
harvest  seemed  to  be  over,  with  the  exception  of  an  occa- 
sional field  long  ripe  and  waiting  for  the  sicl<:le.^ 

It  thus  appears  that  wheat  harvest  in  the  Ghor  takes  place 
about  four  weeks  earlier  than  at  Jerusalem ;  the  two  being 
hardly  more  than  twenty  miles  apart.  The  harvest  of  tlie 
western  plain  lies  between  ;  about  ten  days  later  than  in  the 
Ghor,  and  eighteen  or  twenty  days  earlier  than  on  the  moun- 
tains. 

It  is  also  reported  of  the  melons  raised  along  the  shores  of 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  which  are  of  the  finest  quality,  that 
they  are  in  great  demand  at  'Akka  and  Damascus,  where 
that  fruit  ripens  nearly  a  month  later.^ 

in.  WINDS. 

Scripture  speaks  of  only  four  winds,  corresponding  to  the 
four  quarters  of  the  heavens.*  It  names  also  the  north, 
south,  east,  and  west  winds,^  but  none  from  any  other  quar- 

1  Biblical  Researches,  [II.  pp.  33,  50,  51,  55  11.  pp.  367,  394,  395,  401]. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  431,  II.  p.  324  [II.  p.  99,  III.  p.  168] . 

3  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  323. 

<  See  especially  Matth.  xxiv.  31;  Mark  xiii.  27. 

^  North,  Prov.  xxv.  23.  South,  Ps.  Ixxviii.  26;  Luke  xii.  55.  East,  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  26;  Ex.  xiv.  21.   West,  Ex.  x.  19. 


WINDS. 


303 


ter.  These  terms  of  course  must  be  understood  with  lati- 
tude ;  a  north  wind  implying  any  wind  from  the  northern 
quarter  from  northwest  to  northeast ;  and  so  of  the  rest. 
Hence  a  wind  between  two  quarters  might  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  either  ;  for  example,  a  wind  from  the  southeast 
might  be  spoken  of  as  an  east  wind  or  a  south  wind. 

Winds  of  the  Rainy  Season.  The  prevailing  wind  of  the 
rainy  season  is  from  the  western  quarter ;  the  rains  come 
mostly  from  the  west  or  west-southwest.  It  is  true  now,  as 
of  old,  that  "  when  ye  see  a  cloud  rise  out  of  the  west, 
straightway  ye  say,  There  cometh  a  shower  ;  and  so  it  is."  ^ 
It  does  not  follow  that  it  always  rains  when  the  west  wind 
blows ;  but  it  is  true  that  the  west  is  the  rainy  quarter,  and 
that  in  winter  a  west  wind  seldom  fails,  sooner  or  later,  to 
bring  rain.  This  wind  blows  from  one  day  to  seven  or  eight 
days  at  a  time,  continuing  through  each  group  of  rainy 
days.  Sometimes  the  west  wind  itself  clears  away  the 
clouds  ;  though  fair  weather  more  commonly  follows  a 
change  of  wind  to  the  north  or  east.  The  west  wind  is  often 
stormy  and  violent,  and  drives  the  rain  before  it  with  great 
force.  The  coldest  weather  usually  occurs  during  the  prev- 
alence of  the  west  wind.  This  wind  commonly  follows  an 
east  wind  ;  and  is  itself  often  succeeded  by  an  east  wind,  or 
sometimes  by  a  wind  from  the  north.^ 

Next  to  the  west  wind,  the  east  wind  is  in  winter  the 
most  frequent.  It  drives  away  the  clouds,  and  brings  a  clear 
sky;  blows  sometimes  one  day  and  sometimes  for  several 
days  ;  and  is  seldom  violent.  As  this  wind  comes  from  the 
eastern  deserts  and  passes  over  the  sunken  region  of  the 

1  Luke  xii.  54. 

2  Tobler,  Denkbl.,  pp.  28-30.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  429  [II.  p.  97].  Thorn- 
son,  Land  and  Book,  I.  p.  131. 


304  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

Gh5r,  it  brings  with  it  a  temperature  somewhat  warmer  than 
that  of  the  west  wind. 

The  other  winds  of  winter  are  more  variable.  The  north 
wind  brings  occasionally  fair  weather,  though  less  commonly 
than  that  from  the  east.  The  wind  from  the  south  and  south- 
southwest  (Sirocco)  is  less  frequent  in  winter ;  is  occasion- 
ally violent,  with  a  haze  from  the  desert ;  and  rarely  lasts 
more  than  one  day.  Sometimes  it  does  not  even  raise  the 
temperature.^ 

Winds  of  Summer.  The  most  prevalent  winds  of  sum- 
mer are  the  northwesterly,  and  those  from  the  southern 
quarter. 

The  northwest  wind  or  a  wind  from  west  to  N.  N.  W.  is 
a  day-breeze  coming  from  the  Mediterranean,  springing  up 
in  the  morning  at  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  and  continuing  till 
about  ten  at  night.  It  renders  the  climate  of  the  long  and 
hot  summer  months  much  more  endurable ;  especially  at 
Jerusalem  and  througliout  the  hill-country.^  In  1838,  re- 
turning from  Petra,  we  had  this  wind,  except  one  day,  from 
the  time  we  left  the  GhDr  until  we  arrived  at  Nazareth  ;  that 
is,  from  June  3  to  June  16,  a  period  of  fourteen  succes- 
sive days.  The  air  was  fine  and  mostly  clear  ;  and  although 
the  mercury  ranged  on  several  days  at  midday  from  80°  to 
90°  F.,  the  heat  was  not  burdensome.  Yet  at  Ekron,  where 
the  thermometer  rose  at  noon  to  105°,  and  in  the  sun  only 
to  108°,  this  nortliwest  wind,  coming  directly  from  the  neigh- 
boring sea,  had  the  usual  characteristics  of  a  wind  from  the 
south.  In  May,  1843,  this  westerly  wind  is  reported  as 
blowing  on  eighteen  days  of  the  month  at  Jerusalem.^ 

The  most  disagreeable  wind  of  Palestine  is  that  called  by 

1  Tobler,  Denkbl.,  p.  3L  2  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  49. 

3  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  February,  1844,  p.  222. 


WINDS.  305 

the  Franks  the  Sirocco;  it  comes  from  any  point  of  the 
southern  quarter  from  southeast  to  southwest.  This  name 
is  obviously  an  Italian  form  for  the  Arabic  Shurkiyeh,  '  east 
wind,'  which  is  used  in  the  same  manner ;  and  is  properly 
applied  to  a  wind  from  the  east  or  southeast.  But  as  the 
dreaded  qualities  of  the  east  and  southeast  winds  are  like- 
wise often  exhibited  in  Palestine  by  winds  from  the  southern 
quarter  quite  around  to  the  southwest,  the  name  Sirocco  is 
now  applied  to  any  southern  wind  having  the  like  qualities. 

The  main  characteristics  of  the  Sirocco  are  :  First.  Op- 
pressive sultriness,  causing  great  lassitude  and  a  disinclina- 
tion for  all  effort,  bodily  or  mental.  Second.  Great  dryness, 
exhausting  all  moisture  and  closing  tlie  pores  of  the  body  ; 
producing  also  a  Avithering  effect  upon  vegetation.  Third. 
Usually  a  hazy  atmosphere,  caused  by  the  finest  particles 
of  sand  or  an  impalpable  dust  from  the  deserts  over  which 
the  wind  passes.  This  haze  imparts  a  peculiarly  lurid  and 
ghastly  hue  to  the  sun  and  sky ;  and  the  fine  dust  penetrates 
the  clothing  and  into  every  crevice  and  cranny  of  the  houses. 
It  is  of  course  most  dense  in  the  south ;  and  becomes  grad- 
ually thinner  and  less  perceptible  the  further  it  advances 
towards  the  north.  Sometimes  the  southerly  winds  have 
the  heat  and  dryness,  without  the  haze.  It  may  still  be  said, 
as  of  old :  "  When  ye  see  the  south  wind  blow,  ye  say,  There 
will  be  heat ;  and  it  cometh  to  pass."  ^ 

The  Sirocco  more  commonly  lasts  but  a  single  day ;  but 
sometimes  two  or  three  days,  and  even  longer.  The  more 
easterly  Sirocco  prevailed  at  Jerusalem  in  May,  1843,  for  ten 
days  of  the  month.  We  encountered  the  same  wind  on 
Mount  Tabor  in  June,  1838;  the  thermometer  showing  at 
10  A.M.  98°  F.,  and  at  2  p.  m.  95° ;  with  a  violent  'southeast 

1  Luke  xii.  55.   Comp.  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  51. 
39 


306  PHYSICAL  GEOGkAPET  OF  THE  HOLY  LAXD. 

wind,  which  in  the  afternoon  brought  up  a  haze.  In  1848, 
May  6,  the  tents  of  the  United  States'  Expedition  on  the 
shore  of  tlie  Dead  Sea  were  thrown  down  by  a  violent  gust 
of  hot  wind  from  the  eastward. ^ 

More  frequent  in  Palestine  is  the  Sirocco  from  the  south 
or  southwest,  continuing  for  one  day  and  often  for  more. 
We  encountered  it,  in  1838,  three  times  in  its  full  strength. 
The  first  time  was  on  April  11,  in  the  southern  desert,  be- 
tween Eboda  and  Ruliaibeh.    About  11  a.  m.  the  wind  sud- 

» 

denly  changed  from  northeast  to  south,  and  came  upon  us 
with  violence  and  intense  heat  until  it  blew  a  perfect  tem- 
pest. The  atmosphere  was  filled  with  fine  dust,  forming  a 
bluish  haze  ;  the  sun  was  scarcely  visible,  his  disk  exhibiting 
only  a  dun  and  sickly  hue  ;  and  the  glow  of  the  wind  came 
upon  our  faces  as  frojn  a  burning  oven.  Often  we  could  not 
see  ten  rods  around  us  ;  and  our  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  mouths, 
and  clothes  were  filled  with  the  sand.  The  thermometer  at 
noon  was  88°  F.,  at  2  r.  m.  TG°.2 

The  second  instance  was  on  May  23,  between  Tefi'uh  and 
Hebron.  The  wind  had  been  S.  W.  all  the  morning  ;  but 
about  11  o'clock  it  increased,  and  became  at  last  a  violent  tem- 
pest, bringing  the  dust  and  sand  from  the  desert,  and  filling 
the  air  so  as  to  obscure  the  sun.  The  whole  atmosphere 
became  of  a  deep  dun  or  yellowish  hue.  As  we  approached 
the  height  of  land  a  very  few  drops  of  rain  fell ;  these  left 
upon  our  clothes  spots  of  mud,  as  if  we  had  been  spattered 
from  a  puddle.  The  thermometer  at  10  a.  m.  and  2  p.  m.  was 
86°  ;  at  sunset  it  cleared  away  with  a  wind  from  the  N.  W.^ 

1  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  \.  c.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  352  [HI.  p.  212].  Lynch, 
Official  Report,  p.  74. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  195  [II.  p.  2SS]. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  U.  p.  72  [IL  p.  429]. 


PURITY  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


307 


The  last  instance  was  on  May  30,  in  the  'Arabah  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  The  mercury  at  sunrise  was  at  69°  F.,  with 
a  cool  and  pleasant  wind  from  the  S.  W.  But  by  10  o'clock 
the  wind  had  become  strong ;  the  mercury  had  risen  to  96° ; 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  was  intolerable.  At  noon  this  wind 
was  a  fierce  Sirocco,  which  brought  up  a  dense  haze ;  and 
the  thermometer  had  risen  to  102°.  At  2  ?.  m.  it  had  sunk 
to  96° ;  and  at  sunset  was  at  76°,  with  a  cool  northwest 
wind,  which  soon  cleared  the  atmosphere.^ 

It  is  not  to  be  understood,  that  in  such  tempests  there  is, 
in  Palestine,  any  danger  of  life.  Yet  the  three  here  de- 
scribed were  probably  as  violent  as  most  of  those  which  have 
given  rise  to  the  exaggerated  accounts  of  travellers.^ 

The  '  east  wind '  spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testament,  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  Palestine,  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  Sirocco 
in  its  characteristics,  particularly  in  its  violence,  its  heat, 
dryness,  and  withering  effect.  Not  improbably  the  name  was 
employed  of  old  in  the  same  general  extent  as  is  the  modern 
Shurkiyeh  or  Sirocco.^ 

The  other  summer  winds  of  Palestine  can  only  be  de- 
scribed as  variable,  both  in  frequency  and  duration. 

IV.   PURITY  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

The  splendor  of  the  summer  sun  and  sky  of  Palestine  is 
very  striking ;  and  is  occasioned  by  the  usual  clearness  and 
purity  of  the  atmosphere.  This  clearness  and  transparency 
are  so  great,  that  remote  objects  are  seen  with  singular  dis- 
tinctness ;  and  their  actual  distance  seems  diminished  by  at 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  122  [II.  p.  503]. 

2  Comp.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  196  [I-  p.  289]. 

3  Violence,  Psalm  xlviii.  7;  Jer.  xviii.  17;  Ezek.  xxvii.  26.  Withering  eflfect, 
Ezek.  xvii.  10,  xix.  12;  Hos.  xiii.  15. 


308 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


least  one  half.  Thus  when  we  looked  from  Taiyibeh  down 
upon  the  Ghor  and  across  to  the  mountains  of  'Ajlun,  it 
seemed  as  if  the  mountains  themselves  and  the  old  fortress 
er-Rubud  were  not  more  than  an  easy  day's  journey  distant ; 
although  they  could  not  have  been  reached  in  less  than  two 
or  three  days.  In  the  transparency  of  its  atmosphere,  Pal- 
estine falls  little,  if  any,  short  of  Greece.^ 

This  clearness,  however,  is  only  too  often  interrupted  by 
the  haziness  brought  up  by  the  Sirocco  winds,  as  above  de- 
scribed. This  continues  sometimes  for  one  day  ;  sometimes 
for  several  days.  Besides  this,  there  is  occasionally  a  kind 
of  dry  mist  or  haziness,  like  smoke,  which  renders  the  view 
of  distant  objects  quite  indistinct.  The  appearance  then 
is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Indian  summer  of  the  United 
States.2 

The  climate  of  Palestine  is  in  general  healthy  ;  there  being 
few  marshes  or  other  causes  to  detract  from  its  salubrity. 
The  people  of  the  country  are  long  lived,  vigorous,  and  ca- 
pable of  enduring  great  fatigue.  In  the  sunken  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  where  the  greater  heat  is  in  itself  enervating,  the 
Ghawarineh,  who  dwell  there,  have  less  vigor  and  energy 
than  the  inhabitants  of  the  hill-country,  and  may  be  called 
in  comparison  a  feeble  race  ;  but  they  are  not  in  other  re- 
spects a  sickly  people. 

As  of  old,  so  now  Palestine,  like  other  oriental  countries, 
is  not  free  from  the  ravages  of  contagious  diseases,  nor  from 
''the  pestilence  that  walketh  in  darkness."^  The  plague 
often  prevails  in  its  chief  cities  ;  and  the  Asiatic  cholera 

1  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  9  [L  p.  13].  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King, 
p.  414. 

2  Barclay,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  414. 
«  Ps.  xci.  6. 


PURITY  OF  TIIE  ATMOSPHERE. 


309 


did  not  pass  it  by.^  But  such  diseases  are  not  indigenous ; 
they  come  from  other  lands. 

In  Jerusalem,  and  perhaps  in  some  of  the  other  cities,  there 
would  seem  to  exist  some  local  cause,  operating  to  produce 
particular  diseases.  Thus  in  Jerusalem  full  one  half  of  the 
patients  who  come  under  the  observation  of  resident  Frank 
physicians,  are  cases  of  the  disease  known  as  chills  and  fever, 
fever  and  ague,  intermittent  fever ;  in  its  various  forms  of 
quotidian,  tertian,  and  quartan  ague  or  intermittent.  This 
complaint  is  very  common,  and  prevails  more  or  less  through- 
out the  year ;  though  it  is  most  frequent  in  the  beginning  of 
summer  after  the  rainy  season.  It  spares  neither  rank  nor 
age ;  even  infants  at  the  breast  are  affected  as  well  as  their 
mothers.  Young  children  are  seen  swollen  and  with  pale 
faces,  reminding  one  of  the  sickly  inhabitants  of  the  Pontine 
marshes.  These  fevers  are  at  first  mild,  and  yield  readily  to 
medical  treatment ;  but  if  neglected,  they  become  more  diffi- 
cult of  cure.2 

The  prevalence  of  this  disease  in  the  Holy  City  has  been 
ascribed  to  various  causes.  That  the  source  must  be  local, 
existing  within  the  city  itself,  would  seem  a  necessary  con- 
clusion. The  city  is  at  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  six 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  there  are  no  marshes  near 
it.  Those  Frank  families,  also,  which  sometimes  dwell  in 
tents  during  summer  in  the  neighboring  fields,  escape  the 
disease.  It  is  often  ascribed  to  the  poor  diet  and  filthy 
dwellings  of  the  people  ;  but  it  spares  just  as  little  those  who 
live  in  the  best  houses  and  have  plenty  of  food.  The  resi- 
dent Franks  do  not  escape.    Our  last  visit  in  May,  1852,  was 

1  See  an  account  of  the  plague  in  Jerusalem  in  1838,  in  Biblical  Researches,  1. 
pp.  248-250  [1.  pp.  367-370]. 

2  Tobler,  Medizinische  Topograph,  v.  Jerus.,  pp.  32-35. 


310 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


at  the  house  of  Dr.  Barclay,  on  the  eastern  brow  of  Zion, 
where  we  found  him  and  several  of  his  family  suffering  from 
fever  and  ague.^  The  cause  has  also  been  sought  in  the 
evaporations  from  the  pool  of  Hezekiah ;  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  those  living  directly  upon  that  pool  are  more 
affected  than  the  rest  of  the  city.  Others  suppose  the  disease 
is  occasioned  by  the  exhalations  from  the  multitude  of  cis- 
terns, many  of  which  are  seldom  cleansed,  and  when  low 
the  water  becomes  filthy  and  unwholesome.  Such  a  cause 
may  indeed  have  its  influence,  especially  late  in  the  dry 
season  ;  but  in  the  spring  months,  when  the  fever  prevails 
most,  the  cisterns  are  full,  and  this  supposed  cause  can  have 
only  a  sliglit  effect. 

May  not,  after  all,  the  true  source  of  the  evil  lie  in  the 
vast  masses  of  rubbish  accumulated  upon  the  surface  to  the 
depth  in  many  places  of  forty  and  even  eighty  feet ;  the  re- 
sult of  the  frequent  desolations  of  the  city  during  the  almost 
thirty  centuries  of  its  history  ?  In  winter  these  surface 
masses  absorb  the  rain  water ;  and  in  the  subsequent  months 
the  burning  sun  causes  it  to  exhale  as  miasma  or  malaria, 
producing  even  at  this  high  elevation  effects  similar  to  those 
following  like  causes  in  other  lands.  Various  towns  of  Greece, 
which  occupy  the  sites  of  ancient  cities,  and  even  Rome  it- 
self, are  reported  to  exhibit  analogous  phenomena. 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  201. 


CHAPTER  lY. 


GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES. 

Palestine  in  its  relations  to  modern  geology  has  been  only 
partially  explored.  Seetzen,  Russegger,  and  Anderson  are 
the  only  professional  observers  who  have  given  more  than  a 
passing  attention  to  the  subject.  Of  the  former  we  have,  in 
the  recently  published  volumes  of  his  journal,  the  daily  jottings 
of  the  information  he  obtained  ;  in  which  he  often  enumerates 
briefly  various  rocks  and  earths ;  but  he  presents  no  general 
view.  The  second  gives  in  several  places  a  general  survey ; 
but  enters  less  into  particulars.  The  last,  in  those  parts 
visited  by  the  United  States'  Expedition,  made  a  very  care- 
ful and  minute  examination  of  particulars  ;  but  his  general 
description  is  likewise  very  brief.  Schubert  too  was  a  geol- 
ogist ;  but  his  remarks  on  the  subject  are  few,  and  bear  only 
upon  his  own  immediate  route.  Burckhardt  often  refers  to 
particular  geological  features  ;  and  Dr.  Wilson  does  the  same 
to  a  greater  extent.  Of  all  these  writers,  except  Anderson, 
the  latest,  Ritter  has  made  use  in  his  great  work. 

What  we  have  to  give  here,  is  of  course  only  a  very  brief 
and  general  outline. 

I.    GENERAL  LIMESTONE  FORMATION. 

The  great  masses  of  rock  which  constitute  the  mountains 
of  Palestine  and  Lebanon,  are  Jura  limestone  ;  compact,  hard, 


312 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


not  rich  in  fossils,  and  full  of  caverns  and  grottos.  This  rock 
is  everywhere  the  basis  ;  on  which  have  been  deposited,  in 
some  parts,  extensive  tracts  of  volcanic  products ;  as  also 
chalk  and  chalky  limestone,  magnesian  limestone  (dolo- 
mite), sandstone,  conglomerate,  marl,  etc.  etc. 

On  the  west  of  the  Jordan  and  'Arabah,  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, which  prevails  through  the  southern  desert,  terminates 
with  the  desert ;  and  the  Jura  limestone,  beginning  with  the 
mountains  south  of  Hebron,  holds  its  course  northward ; 
forming  the  mass  of  the  western  hill-country  of  Carmel  and 
of  Lebanon. 

East  of  the  Jordan  and  'Arabah,  where  around  Petra  large 
masses  of  porphyry,  sandstone,  and  limestone  lie  in  close 
proximity,  the  same  Jura  limestone  extends  northward 
through  the  Belka  and  the  mountains  of  '  Ajliin  ;  and  is  like- 
wise the  basis  on  which  rest  the  vast  volcanic  tracts  of  Hau- 
ran,  Jaulan,  and  the  Lejah. 

From  Dlioheriyeh  and  Hebron  northward  throughout  Ju- 
dea  and  Samaria,  the  Jura  formation  prevails  without  in- 
terruption ;  except  that  many  of  the  heights  are  capped  with 
strata  of  chalk  abounding  in  flints  ;  and  tracts  of  the  same 
extend  down  the  eastern  desert  to  the  borders  of  the  Ghor ; 
the  same  also  being  the  case  on  the  west  of  the  watershed  or 
summit  level.  Here  on  the  west,  the  ravines  expose  little  else 
than  the  limestones  which  lie  beneath  the  chalk,  or  at  most 
occasional  banks  of  estuary  sandstone.  In  the  ravines  of 
the  eastern  slope  rocks  of  sandstone  are  not  of  uncommon 
occurrence ;  and  the  character  of  the  limestone  generally 
approaches  nearer  to  the  chalk  than  to  the  Jura.^ 

The  hill  on  which  Bethlehem  stands  is  of  chalk ;  so  too 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  as  well  as  other  heights.    Flints  appear 

1  Russegger,  IIL  pp.  246,  247.   Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  81. 


SANDSTONE.    CONGLOMERATE.  aiARL. 


313 


ill  great  profusion  for  some  distance  east  of  Bethlehem  ;  and 
a  remarkable  wall  of  them  is  seen  just  below  that  town.^ 

Throughout  Carmel  and  Galilee  the  limestone  exhibits  the 
same  general  character.  East  of  the  watershed,  along  all 
the  eastern  slope,  basalt  and  other  volcanic  rocks  are  very 
frequent,  and  often  alternate  with  the  limestone. 

East  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan,  there  is  far  more  of 
sandstone  and  basalt.  The  sandstone  appears  especially 
along  the  shore  of  that  sea.  Along  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the 
limestone  is  seen  in  the  lower  strata  of  the  high  wall  of 
the  eastern  plateau  ;  and  is  found  also  in  the  bottoms  of 
the  deep  ravines,  underlying  the  volcanic  masses  spread  out 
over  the  surface.^  The  beautiful  terrace  of  Banias  is  wholly 
of  limestone  ;  and  the  great  fountain  of  the  Jordan  there 
issues  from  beneath  a  limestone  precipice ;  but  the  igneous 
rocks  begin  near  by,  which  form  the  main  mass  of  Jebel 
Heish ;  although  the  limestone  appears  also  east  of  Banias.^ 

Magnesian  Limestone  or  Dolomite.  In  connection  with 
the  Jura  limestone  of  Jerusalem  and  that  region,  occur  also 
frequently  large  masses  of  dolomite.  This  is  seen  especially 
in  the  rocks  which  form  the  sides  of  caverns  and  grottos.* 

II.   SANDSTONE.   CONGLOMERATE.  MARL. 

Sandstone.  On  the  west  of  the  Jordan  sandstone  is  rare ; 
and  occurs  only  in  the  ravines,  as  already  related.^  East  of 
the  Dead  Sea  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  sandstone  ;  espe- 
cially around  the  estuaries  of  the  Wady  Mojib  QArnon)  and 

1  Russegger,  III.  pp.  246,  247.   Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  172. 

2  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  II.  p.  39.   Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  133. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  397,  406.  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp. 
108,  109. 

*  Russegger,  III.  p.  248.  «  See  above,  p.  312. 

40 


314 


PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  Zerka  Ma'in.^  Further  south,  around  Petra,  wliere  the 
body  of  the  mountain  is  porphyry,  it  is  capped  by  thick  masses 
of  sandstone  of  the  most  singular  forms  and  colors.^ 

Conglomerate.  The  conglomerates  are  mostly  found 
along  the  sides  of  the  Ghor ;  as  at  Ras  el-Feshkhah.  Not 
unfrequently  they  appear  in  the  Ghor  itself;  as  in  the  tract 
above  Kurn  Surtabeh.^ 

Marl.  At  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Dead  Sea  are 
extensive  tracts  of  marl,  along  with  marly  gypsum  and  chalk. 
These  lie  in  part  back  of  Jcbel  Usdum  ;  and  are  traversed 
by  the  Wadys  Ziiwinah  and  Muhauwat.  They  arc  worn 
away  by  the  rains  into  conical  and  pyramidal  hills,  like  a 
vast  array  of  white  tents,  without  vegetation,  and  presenting 
the  features  of  a  frightful  desert.  Some  other  like  tracts 
are  seen  along  the  western  coast ;  and  north  of  'Ain  el-Fesh- 
khah similar  tent-like  hills  fill  up  the  space  between  the  sea 
and  the  western  mountain.^ 

HL    VOLCANIC  TRACTS. 

West  of  the  Ghor.  On  the  west  of  the  Ghor  and  'Arabah 
no  igneous  rocks  or  volcanic  products  have  been  found  be- 
tween about  the  parallel  of  'Akabah  and  the  neighborhood 
of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.^ 

The  basalt  first  shows  itself  at  Beisan,  some  four  hours  south 

1  Seetzcn,  Rcisen,  II.  pp.  364-370.  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp.  190-194; 
comp.  p.  134. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  125  sq.;  comp.  pp.  123,  124  [II.  p.  509  sq.;  comp. 
p.  506  sq.]. 

8  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  198.   Ibid.,  pp.  143,  14-5,  146,  etc. 

*  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp.  180,  197.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  534,  II. 
pp.  103,  104  [II.  pp.  253,  474-476]. 

«  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp.  133,  134.  Biblical  Researches,  I.  p.  176 
[I,  p.  260] . 


VOLCANIC  TRACTS. 


315 


of  the  lake,  where  a  considerable  tract  around  is  volcanic. 
The  ancient  theatre  of  Bcisan  was  wholly  built  of  black  ba- 
saltic stones  ;  as  were  the  houses  generally.^ 

Commencing  again  at  cl-'Abadiyeh,  an  hour  south  of  the 
lake,  volcanic  rocks,  alternating  with  the  limestone,  are 
spread  over  the  surface  of  a  large  irregular  district  along  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  hill-country,  extending  on  the  west  to 
near  el-Jish,  and  on  the  north  to  Wady  et-Teim ;  of  which 
district  Safed  may  be  said  to  be  the  centre.  The  iron  gray 
basalt-lava  of  Tiberias  represents  the  southerly  and  predom- 
inant formation  ;  the  variegated  pumices  of  Delata  may  be 
taken  as  an  average  specimen  of  the  far  more  recent  lavas  of 
the  north,  while  at  Tell  el-Haiyeh,  still  further  northeast, 
we  found  again  a  third  description,  of  which  the  relative  date 
is  more  difficult  to  assign. ^ 

The  broad  tract  of  higher  uneven  land,  which  lies  between 
the  basin  of  the  Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  which, 
shelving  down  from  the  higher  western  hills,  shuts  up  the 
whole  GhOr,  except  the  deep  rocky  chasm  of  the  Jordan,  is 
in  the  west  mainly  limestone.  But  the  basalt  shows  itself 
in  many  places ;  and  especially  along  the  Jordan/*^  The 
channel  and  chasm  of  the  river  here,  along  its  steep  descent, 
between  the  lakes,  are  volcanic  ;  and  the  whole  region  on  its 
eastern  side  is  basalt.*  Just  here  and  nowhere  else,  the  lavas 
of  the  western  and  eastern  sides  of  the  Ghar  touch  each  other. 

We  have  already  dcscri1)cd  the  manner  in  which  Wady 
et-Teim  enters  the  basin  of  the  Huleh  by  six  steps  or  offsets, 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  328.  Thomson,  Laud  and  Book,  IL  p.  175. 
BurcUhardr,  Syria,  p.  343. 

2  Anderson,  Geoloi;ieal  Report,  p.  130. 

«  Schubert,  III.  p.  2G0.   Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  I.  p.  401. 
«  Scet/.cu,  Kciscn,  1.  p.  342,  343.    Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  411,  413  [III. 
pp.  304-308]. 


316 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAm 


with  broad  terraces  between. ^  The  uppermost  three  of  these 
terraces  are  volcanic  ;  and  the  steps  which  divide  them  run 
from  southwest  to  northeast.  Along  the  highest  of  these 
plateaus  the  upper  branch  of  the  Jordan,  the  Hasbany,  has 
cut  its  way  in  a  deep  chasm  through  the  trap  rocks  down  to 
the  lower  level  of  the  more  southern  plain.  At  one  place, 
the  great  fountain  Luweizany  bursts  forth  from  beneath  the 
strata  of  the  underlying  limestone.^  At  the  bridge  called 
Jisr  el-Ghujar  and  for  some  distance  below,  the  basalt  is  still 
predominant.^ 

Tell  el-Kady,  from  which  issiies  the  middle  and  largest 
source  of  the  Jordan,  stands  just  on  the  front  of  the  lower 
volcanic  terrace,  and  forms  part  of  the  offset.  It  is  itself 
volcanic  ;  but  here  the  igneous  rocks  cease.  All  north  and 
northwest,  as  also  southwest  of  this  Tell,  is  basaltic  ;  all 
south  and  east  of  it  is  limestone.  The  Tell  is  not  regarded 
as  a  crater.*  Southwest  of  the  Jisr  el-Ghujar,  a  long  tongue 
of  land.  Tell  el-Haiyeh,  extends  into  the  basin  of  the  Huleh. 
It  is  composed  of  gray  green-stone  ;  and  is  a  spur  or  contin- 
uation of  the  ridge  which  bounds  Wady  et-Teim  on  the  west. 
This  latter  ridge  is  likewise  made  up  of  mixed  limestone 
and  trap.^  The  upper  fountain  of  the  Jordan,  near  Has- 
beiya,  issues  at  the  foot  of  a  volcanic  bluff.^ 

The  black  basaltic  rocks  sometimes  assume  singular  forms, 
especially  on  the  west  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  West  of  Tell 
Hum,  the  ground  is  covered  with  large  volcanic  stones  ; 
among  which,  in  spring,  the  rank  grass  shoots  up  luxuri- 

1  See  above,  p.  75.  2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  389. 

3  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  108. 

*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  391, 393.   Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  108. 

*  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  108. 
^  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  378. 


VOLCANIC  TRACTS. 


317 


antly.  Here,  too,  on  the  tops  of  the  hills  around,  are  seen  clus- 
ters of  larger  black  volcanic  rocks  ;  which,  standing  apart, 
bear  at  a  distance  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  sites  of  ruined 
towns ;  for  which  indeed  they  have  sometimes  been  mistaken. 
The  '  stones  of  the  Christians,'  so  called,  near  the  Kurun 
Hattin,  are  of  the  same  kind ;  and  similar  appearances  occur 
in  other  parts. ^ 

Extinct  Craters.  One  centre  of  ancient  volcanic  action 
on  the  west  of  the  Ghor,  was  the  region  around  Safed  ;  where 
there  exist  several  extinct  craters.  One  of  these,  perhaps 
the  most  important,  was  first  reported  by  us  in  1838.  It  is 
situated  in  the  middle  of  a  high  open  plain,  on  the  road 
from  Safed  to  Tyre  ;  about  an  hour  and  a  half  northwesterly 
from  Safed,  and  half  an  hour  before  reaching  the  village  el- 
Jish.  The  whole  plain  is  thickly  covered  with  volcanic 
stones ;  and  the  crater  is  surrounded  by  heaps  of  black  stones 
and  lava.  It  is  an  oval  basin,  towards  four  hundred  feet 
long  by  perhaps  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  broad,  and 
some  forty  feet  deep.  The  sides  are  shelving,  but  steep  and 
rugged,  obviously  composed  of  lava.  Near  the  bottom  the 
tops  of  polygonal  columns  are  quite  visible.  The  basin  is 
usually  partially  filled  with  water ;  and  is  known  as  Birket 
el-Jish.2 

Two  other  like  craters  were  found  by  Dr.  Anderson  in  the 
vicinity.  One,  a  mile  or  two  east  of  Birket  el-Jish  and  north 
of  Teitebeh,  is  like  the  former  in  all  respects,  and  about  as 
large  ;  not  a  stone  appears  which  is  not  volcanic.  Between 
this  spot  and  Delata  is  a  third  crater  or  Birkeh,  smaller  than 
the  other  two ;  but  marked  in  like  manner  with  blocks  of 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  346,  347;  corap.  p.  342. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  IL  p.  444  [IIL  p.  367].  Anderson,  Geological  Report, 
pp.  128,  129. 


318 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


lava.i  The  same  explorer  mentions  also  three  other  Bir- 
kehs  north  of  Delata,  in  the  midst  of  a  volcanic  tract ;  but 
does  not  indicate  whether  they  were  once  craters.^ 

East  of  the  Ghur.  Passing  now  beyond  the  Ghor,  we  find 
on  the  east  of  the  Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias  a  volcanic 
region  of  far  greater  extent ;  embracing  vast  plains  and  lofty 
mountains  ;  and  varying  from  the  richest  fertility  to  the 
wildest  confusion  and  desolation. 

The  great  fountain  at  Banias,  as  we  have  seen,  issues  from 
beneath  a  precipice  of  limestone.  But  the  volcanic  rocks 
begin  immediately  ;  and  rise  throughout  Jebel  Heish,  form- 
ing the  main  masses  of  that  mountain.  On  the  high  plateau 
along  its  top  is  situated  Lake  Phiala,  an  ancient  crater.  The 
line  of  conical  Tells  which  extend  along  this  plateau  towards 
the  south,  are  in  like  manner  all  volcanic.  The  loftiest  is 
Tell  Abu  Xida,  south  of  Phiala,  rising  about  four  thousand 
one  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  nine  hundred  feet  above 
the  adjacent  plateau,  having  a  deep  crater  thickly  wooded 
with  oak  trees.  The  adjacent  Tell  'Eram  is  nearly  as  high, 
and  also  has  a  crater.  The  southernmost  of  this  line  of  Tells 
is  Tell  el-Feras.3 

Between  the  Hidch  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the  whole 
Ghor,  as  we  have  seen,  is  blocked  up  with  basalt ;  through 
which  the  Jordan,  in  its  narrow  chasm,  rushes  down  to  the 
level  of  the  lower  lake.  The  tract  on  the  east  is  all  basalt, 
and  is  strictly  still  a  part  of  Jebel  Heish. 

Along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  in  the 
wall  that  rises  from  the  lake  to  the  high  plateau  above,  the 

1  Anderson,  Geolof?ical  Report,  p.  129. 

2  Anderson,  Geological  Report,  p.  129. 

3  Dorgens,  in  Berl.  Zeitschr.  fiir  Erdk.,  Nov.  1860,  IX.  pp.  405,  406.  Thomson, 
Land  and  Book,  II.  pp.  16,  17. 


VOLCANIC  TRACTS. 


319 


lower  strata  are  everywhere  limestone  ;  but  all  above  is  of 
basalt.  The  volcanic  formation  extends  south  as  far  as  to  the 
river  Hieromax  and  beyond.  The  chasm  of  that  river  is  cut 
deep  through  the  volcanic  rocks  ;  but  the  mountain  of  Ga- 
dara  (Um  Keis),  an  hour  further  south,  is  of  limestone. ^ 

The  wiiole  tract  thus  far  described,  the  high  plateau  of 
Jaulan,  is  everywhere  from  two  thousand  to  three  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  Of  course  the  descent  towards  the  lake 
of  Tiberias  is  great ;  and  the  volcanic  formation  is  of  great 
thickness.  "  This  immense  volcanic  field  consists  every- 
where of  irregular  heaps  of  amorphous  lava  and  disintegra- 
ting scoriae,  with  gigantic  mounds  of  globular  basalt,  which 
in  a  few  localities  shows  a  tendency  to  separate  into  rudely- 
shaped  columns."  ^ 

Eastward  of  Jebel  Heish  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and 
extending  to  the  eastern  desert,  lies  the  great  region  now 
known  as  HaTiran.  It  covers  a  much  larger  surface  than  the 
ancient  Hauran  or  Auranitis ;  which  strictly  occupied  only 
its  southern  part.  The  modern  Hauran  is  regarded  by  the 
natives  as  consisting  of  three  parts ;  namely,  en-Nukrah  or 
the  great  plain,  extending  through  the  whole  length,  and 
reaching  to  the  base  of  the  mountain  ;  el-Lejah  in  the  north- 
east ;  and  the  mountain  Jehel  Hcmrdn,  on  the  east.  This 
great  region  is  wholly  volcanic.^  Between  the  Niikrah  and 
Jebel  Heish,  in  the  north,  is  the  narrow  district  of  el-Jeidur, 
the  ancient  Iturea,  also  volcanic. 

The  plain  of  Hauran,  en-Nukrah,  has  a  gentle  undulating 
surface,  with  a  strong  slope  towards  the  west ;  is  arable 

1  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  IL  p.  39.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  271,  273.  Seet- 
zen,  Reisen,  I.  p.  3C8. 

2  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  IL  p.  39. 

3  E.  Smith  in  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  III.  App.,  p.  150. 


320 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


throughout,  with  the  exception  of  occasional  tracts  of  vol- 
canic stones  ;  and  is,  in  general,  very  fertile.  With  the  rest 
of  Hauran,  it  is  the  granary  of  Damascus  ;  nothing  but  grain 
is  cultivated.  Hardly  a  tree  or  shrub  is  anywhere  to  be 
seen.  Scattered  throughout  the  plain  are  low  mounds  of  ba- 
salt, on  which  the  villages  are  usually  situated.  Higher  is- 
olated conical  Tells  of  the  same  character  are  not  infre- 
quent. The  fertility  of  the  region  is  owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  soil ;  which,  as  in  other  volcanic  countries,  is  composed 
of  disintegrated  lava,  forming  a  reddish  brown  loam  of  great 
fertility.  This  soil,  known  as  the  Hauran  loam,  is  celebrated 
throughout  Syria.^ 

The  Lejah  is  a  singular  district  of  volcanic  rocks.  It  is 
of  an  oval  form,  about  twenty-five  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  by  about  fifteen  miles  broad.  It  is  skirted  on  the  east 
by  Wady  Liwa,  a  water-course  from  the  mountain  running 
north  to  the  southernmost  of  the  Damascus  lakes.  The 
tract  immediately  surrounding  the  Lejah  and  forming  its 
border,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  el-Luhf^  '  the  coverings.'  The 
outer  Lejah  is  a  level  country,  with  a  stony  soil  covered 
with  lieaps  of  rocks  ;  among  which  are  interspersed  small 
patches  of  meadow.  The  inner  Lejah  is  a  labyrinth  of 
rocks  ;  through  which  the  Arabs  alone  have  the  clew.  Some 
of  the  rocks  are  twenty  feet  high  ;  and  the  country  is  full  of 
clefts  and  Wadys.  Trees  grow  here  in  great  numbers  among 
the  rocks  ;  the  oak  and  the  Butm  being  the  most  common. 
There  are  no  springs  in  any  part  of  this  rocky  district. 

"  In  the  interior  parts  of  the  Lejah  the  rocks  are  in  many 
places  cleft  asunder,  so  that  the  whole  hill  appears  shivered 

1  E.  Smith  in  Biblical  Researches,  1841,  HI.  App.,  p.  150.  Seetzen,  Reisen,  L 
p.  132;  corap.  pp.  45,  47.  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept., 
pp.  147,  148.   Lyell,  Elements  of  Geology,  p.  90. 


YOLCAXIC  TRACTS. 


321 


and  in  the  act  of  falling  down.  The  layers  are  generally 
horizontal,  from  six  to  eight  feet  or  more  in  thickness  ;  some- 
times covering  the  hills,  and  inclining  to  their  curve,  as 
appears  from  the  fissures,  which  often  traverse  the  rock 
from  top  to  bottom."  The  rock  is  everywhere  hard  black 
basalt,  filled  with  little  pits  and  protuberances  like  air  bub- 
bles ;  and  emits  a  sharp  metallic  sound  when  struck.  It  is 
much  iised  for  the  millstones  of  the  country.  Only  two  con- 
ical Tells,  like  those  in  the  great  plain,  are  seen  in  the  Lejah, 
rising  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet,  —  Tell 
Amara  and  Tell  Sumeid.  These  physical  features  of  the 
Lejah  have  rendered  it  a  secure  retreat  for  robbers  and  out- 
laws from  the  earliest  times  until  the  present  day.  The  mil- 
itary prowess  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  was  taxed  in  vain  to  subdue 
it.i 

The  mountain,  Jebel  Hauran,  lies  mainly  east  of  the  plain  ; 
and  the  great  body  of  it  is  everywhere  volcanic.  Especially 
the  high  plateau,  on  which  rise  the  loftiest  summits,  as  the 
Kuleib  and  others,  several  of  them  with  extinct  craters,  con- 
sists of  a  compact  basalt  with  few  traces  of  decomposition. 
Near  the  southern  end,  also,  at  Sulkhad,  the  hill  on  whicli 
the  castle  stands  is  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  the  com- 
mon black  tuiF  of  the  country,  and  of  a  very  porous  deep 
red  pumice-stone.  The  soil  is  the  reddish  brown  loam  of 
the  region,  and  very  fertile.^ 

Eastward  of  the  mountain  and  of  the  Lejah  lies  the  des- 
ert ;  but  it  is  a  desert  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  frightful 
character,  being  wholly  and  strangely  volcanic.    The  extent 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  110,  112,  113.  Porter's  Damascus,  II.  pp.  48,  240. 
Handbook,  pp.  499,  504,  506.  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitsclir.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept., 
pp.  136,  137. 

2  Dorgens,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1860,  Dec,  p.  408.  Burckhardt,  Syria, 
pp.  102,  105. 

41 


322 


PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


of  this  volcanic  desert  tract,  so  far  as  known,  is  perhaps  one 
hundred  miles  or  more  in  length  from  south  to  north,  lying 
between  Lat.  32°  and  34°  N.  The  breadth  may  be  from 
sixty  to  seventy  miles.  The  northern  portion,  situated  east 
of  the  Damascus  lakes,  does  not  of  course  fall  within  the  lim- 
its of  Palestine  proper. ^  The  southern  portion,  on  the  east 
and  southeast  of  the  mountain,  is  known  as  el-Harrah.  It  is 
an  undulating  plain,  thickly  strewed  with  volcanic  rocks  and 
stones,  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  animals  to  find  their  way. 
It  can  never  be  cultivated ;  yet  in  the  rainy  season  herbage 
springs  up  among  the  stones,  which  affords  pasturage  for 
the  flocks  of  the  Bedawin.  In  several  places  inscriptions 
are  found  upon  these  scattered  blocks,  some  in  known  char- 
acters, and  others  in  unknown.^ 

The  middle  point  of  this  great  volcanic  district  is  the 
Safa,  on  tlie  north  and  west  of  the  Harrah.  This  is  a  tract 
fifteen  or  twenty  miles  long  by  as  much  in  breadth,  a  mere 
plateau  or  mountain  of  lava,  the  surface  exhibiting  the  most 
ragged  and  fantastic  forms,  upheaved,  blistered,  riven,  corru- 
gated, jagged,  with  many  deep  pits  and  rents,  and  impassable 
for  man  or  beast.  Various  volcanic  cones  are  seen  in  it,  as 
also  in  the  more  northern  portion  of  the  district ;  the  ancient 
sources  of  this  flood  of  fire.  Among  these  more  northern 
cones  are  the  Tellid  (including  Tell  Dukweh),  which  are 
seen  from  Damascus  upon  the  eastern  horizon.^ 

On  the  southeast  of  the  Safa,  between  it  and  the  Harrah, 
lies  a  depressed  strip  of  fertile  land,  an  oasis  or  plain,  some 
five  miles  broad  by  seven  or  eight  long,  known  as  er-Ruhbeh. 

1  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschiv  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept.,  pp.  113,  114. 

2  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept.,  pp.  126,  174. 

3  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept.,  pp.  114-125.  Later  Bibli- 
cal Researches,  pp.  445,  446,  470. 


VOLCANIC  TRACTS. 


323 


Here  the  waters  collect  in  the  rainy  season  and  form  a  lake 
in  the  northern  part,  which  dries  up  in  summer.  This  fine 
tract  is  inhabited  by  the  Bedawin.^ 

The  two  singular  regions  of  volcanic  rocks  now  described, 
the  Lejah  in  the  west  and  the  Safa  with  the  Harrah  in  the 
east,  correspond  very  aptly,  as  suggested  by  Wetzstein,  to  the 
tivo  Trachones  (ol  hvo  Tpd^oyve^;')  of  Strabo  ;  which  he  places 
in  the  south  or  southeast  of  Damascus. ^  These  have  usually 
been  regarded,  on  mere  conjecture,  as  two  mountains  ;  be- 
cause the  easternmost  of  the  two  "  rough  "  tracts  had  become 
utterly  unknown  to  scholars.  The  Lejah,  without  doubt, 
was  comprised  in  ancient  Trachonitis  ;  and  gave  name  to  the 
district. 

Returning  to  the  borders  of  the  Ghor,  we  find  the  igneous 
rocks  terminating,  as  we  have  described,  just  south  of  the 
Hieromax ;  and  thence  the  limestone  running  on  south 
through  all  Jebcl  'Ajlun  and  the  Belka.  But  along  the 
northeastern  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  north  of  the  Zerka  Ma'in, 
there  are  blocks  of  basalt  in  great  numbers,  as  also  various 
kinds  of  lava  and  pumice-stone.^  Near  the  southeastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  same  sea,  the  narrow  tract  along  the  shore, 
according  to  Irby  and  Mangles,  is  strewn  "  with  innumerable 
fragments  of  red  and  gray  granite ;  gray,  red,  and  black 
porphyry  ;  serpentine  stone  ;  beautiful  black  basalt ;  breccia, 
etc."  *  These  would  seem  to  be  fragments  from  the  mountain 
above.  Still  furtlier  south,  around  Petra,  as  we  know,  the 
whole  body  of  the  mountain  is  porphyry  ;  above  which  lies 

1  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  allg.  Erdk.,  1859,  Sept.,  p.  138. 

2  Strabo,  17.  2.  16,  20,  pp.  755,  756.  Wetzstein,  in  Zeitschr.  fur  allg.  Erdk., 
1859,  Sept.,  p.  144. 

3  Seetzen,  Reisen,  II.  p.  369.   Anderson,  Geological  Report,  pp.  194,  197. 

4  Irby  and  Mangles,  1847,  p.  109. 


324  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


the  singular  sandstone  formation  of  that  region  ;  while  fur- 
ther hack  are  seen  still  higher  hills  of  limestone.^ 

Besides  the  great  volcanic  tract  in  northeastern  Palestine, 
ahove  described,  there  exists  another  still  more  extensive  in 
northern  Syria.  It  includes  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon 
and  of  the  Buka'a,  witli  the  region  of  Hums  and  Hamah  ; 
extends  to  the  sea  near  Tortosa,  embracing  most  of  the 
mountains  of  the  Nusairiyeh ;  and,  taking  in  Antioch  and 
Aleppo  in  the  north,  reaches  to  the  Euphrates  or  beyond.^ 

IV.  EARTHQUAKES. 

Like  other  countries  in  which  volcanic  formations  exist, 
Palestine  is  subject  to  earthquakes.  So  far,  however,  as 
they  are  recorded  in  history,  they  have  been  less  frequent 
and  less  destructive  in  Palestine  proper,  than  in  the  great 
volcanic  region  of  northern  Syria  ;  where  large  cities,  like 
Antioch,  Aleppo,  Ba'albek,  and  otliers,  have  been  repeatedly 
overthrown  by  them. 

In  the  sublime  imagery  with  which  the  Hebrew  poets  sur- 
round the  appearance  of  Jeliovah  in  behalf  of  his  people, 
the  earthquake  holds  a  prominent  place  :  "  Then  the  earth 
shook  and  trembled  ;  the  foundations  of  the  hills  moved  and 
were  shaken,  because  He  was  wroth.^ 

In  Scripture  only  four  earthquakes  are  definitely  recorded. 
The  first  was  in  connection  with  the  appearance  of  God  to 
the  prophet  Elijah  in  mount  Horeb  ;  a  miraculous  accom- 
paniment of  the  divine  manifestation.^    The  second  took 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  123,  124,  128,  120  sq.  [II.  pp.  503,  507,  514  sq.]. 

2  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  .540,  542,  557-559.  W.  M.  Thomson,  in  Bib- 
liotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  472.   See  also  Appendix. 

8  Ps.  xviii.  7;  comp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  8;  Nah.  i.  5,  G;  Hab.  iii.  10. 
*  1  Kings  xix.  11,  12;  comp.  vs.  8. 


EARTHQUAKES. 


325 


place  dupng  the  reign  of  King  Uzziah,  under  whom  Amos 
prophesied ;  and  his  prophecy  was  uttered  two  years  before 
the  earthquake."  The  date  of  the  latter  was  therefore  about 
B.  C.  785.  It  was  apparently  a  great  earthquake  ;  for  three 
hundred  years  later  and  after  the  exile,  the  prophet  Zecha- 
riah  refers  to  it  as  an  epoch  of  terror  and  flight.^  The  re- 
cord of  the  other  two  earthquakes  is  in  the  New  Testament ; 
they  occurred  one  at  the  death,  the  other  at  the  resurrection, 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  former  was  the  most  violent 
and  remarkable  ;  the  rocks  were  rent,  throwing  open  rock- 
hewn  sepulchres ;  and  for  six  hours  preceding  it,  darkness 
had  covered  the  land,  —  a  not  unfrequent  accompaniment  of 
earthquakes. 2  The  other,  at  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord, 
is  mentioned  only  by  Matthew.-^  But  it  obviously  lay  in  the 
minds  of  the  sacred  writers,  that  both  these  convulsions 
of  nature  were  miraculous  attestations  to  the  dignity  and 
majesty  of  the  Son  of  God. 

Another  violent  earthquake  in  Judea  is  mentioned  by 
Josephus,  about  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C.  31  ; 
about  ten  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
the  fall  of  houses  ;  but  the  army  encamped  in  tents  received 
no  damage.*  Jerome  relates,  that  in  his  childhood  the  city 
of  Ar  Moab  (Areopolis)  was  overthrown  by  a  great  earth- 
quake. The.  date  is  uncertain  ;  since  the  birth  of  Jerome 
is  variously  assigned  to  A.  D.  329,  331,  and  340.  The  ref- 
erence may  perhaps  be  to  the  extensive  earthquake  of  A.  D. 
342,  by  which  several  oriental  cities  were  destroyed.^  In 

1  Amos  i.  1;  Zech.  xiv.  5. 

2  Matth.  xxvii.  51,  54;  comp.  Mark  xv.  38;  Luke  xxiii.  45.  Matth.  xxvii.  45; 
Mark  xv.  33;  Luke  xxiii.  44;  comp.  Ps.  xviii.  9,  11. 

3  Matth.  xxviii.  2.  *  Joseph.  Antiq.,  15.  5.  2. 

*  Hieron.  in  Is.  xv.  1,  in  mea  infantia.  Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  578.  Ritter, 
Erdkunde,  XV.  p.  1215. 


326  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

A.  D.  672,  Gaza  and  Askalon,  with  the  adjacent  plaQes  as  far 
as  Ramleh,  suffered  from  the  shocks  of  an  earthquake.^ 

Of  the  ten  destructive  earthquakes  which  desolated  An- 
tioch  during  the  eight  centuries  ending  with  the  sixth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  none  are  recorded  in  any  connec- 
tion with  Palestine.^ 

The  terrible  earthquakes  mentioned  in  history,  as  having 
devastated  northern  Syria  during  the  middle  ages  and  in 
more  modern  times,  extended,  some  of  them,  into  Palestine  ; 
and  the  shocks  of  many  of  them  may  not  improbably  have 
been  felt  there,  though  no  special  damage  was  caused  by 
them.  Thus  the  earthquake  of  A.  D.  1170,  which  was  so 
destructive  to  Antioch  and  Ba'albek,  and  various  other 
cities,  left  Palestine  unharmed.^  That  which  occurred  in 
May,  A.  D.  1202,  described  by  Abdallatif,  ravaged  not  only 
all  Syria,  but  extended  throughout  Hauran  and  Galilee, 
causing  the  destruction  of  Banias,  'Akka,  and  Nabulus ; 
while  Jemsalem  received  very  little  damage.*  So  in  A.  D. 
1759,  the  violent  earthquake  wliich  overthrew  several  of  the 
massive  columns  in  Ba'albek,  and  caused  the  death  of  sev- 
eral tliousand  persons  in  the  great  valley  el-Buka'a,  appears 
hardly  to  have  extended  to  Palestine.^ 

In  the  present  century  an  earthquake  occurred  in  1834 ; 
which  shook  Jerusalem,  injured  the  chapel  of  the  Nativity 
at  Bethlehem,  and  was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  as- 
phaltum  floating  in  the  Dead  Sea.^    One  of  the  most  fearful 

1  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XYL  pp.  64,  70. 

2  O.  MuUer,  Antiq.  Antioch,  pp.  14-17.   Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XYIL  2.  p.  1156. 

«  Will.  Tyr.,  20. 19.  Wilken,  Geschichte  der  Kreuzziige,  HL  2.  p.  134.  Later 
Biblical  Researches,  p.  525. 

*  Abdallatif,  Relation  do  I'Egypte,  par  de  Sacv,  pp.  414-418.  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, p.  94. 

*  Volney,  Voyage  en  Syrie,  I.  p.  276.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  527. 
6  Biblical  Researches,  L  p.  518  [11.  p.  229]. 


EAKTHQUAKES. 


327 


earthquakes  ever  known  in  Palestine  took  place  Jan.  1, 1837  ; 
of  which  Safed  would  seem  to  have  been  the  central  point. 
That  town  was  wholly  destroyed,  and  about  four  thousand 
of  the  inhabitants  perished.  The  walls  of  Tiberias  and 
many  houses  were  thrown  down,  and  seven  hundred  of  the 
inhabitants  killed  ;  several  of  the  neighboring  towns  and  vil- 
lages were  injured  more  or  less,  Nazareth  among  the  rest; 
and  the  shocks  were  felt  as  far  as  Bethlehem  and  Hebron, 
where,  however,  no  great  damage  was  done.  A  very  large 
mass  of  asphaltum  was  afterwards  found  floating  in  the  Dead 
Sea.i 

It  appears  that  amid  all  the  terrific  earthquakes  with 
which  Syria  has  been  afflicted  for  so  many  centuries,  the 
city  of  Jerusalem  has  been  comparatively  spared  ;  in  conse- 
quence, perhaps,  of  its  position  and  distance  from  the  vol- 
canic regions.  The  same  holds  true,  also,  of  the  city  of 
Damascus. 


NOTE  BY  THE  EDITOR. 

The  Author  intended  to  complete  this  Chapter  by  some  instructive  re- 
marks on  Caverns^  Minerals,  and  Soils  ;  and  to  add  two  other  Chapters  on 
the  Vegetable  and  the  Animal  features  of  the  Holy  Land.  An  operation  on 
the  eye  interrupted  him,  and  he  never  resumed  this  work  afterwards. 

In  respect  to  the  first  subjects,  the  Works  mentioned  in  the  notes  of  this 
Geological  Chapter,  and  principally  the  Author's  own  Works,  may  be  re- 
ferred to ;  in  respect  to  the  last,  the  Note  at  the  end  of  the  Appendix. 

1  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  423  and  note  [III.  pp.  322,  323,  and  note].  Ibid., 
n.  p.  381  [III.  p.  254].  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XVI.  pp.  210,  287,  749.  BibUcal  Re- 
searches, I.  p.  518  [II.  p.  229]. 


APPENDIX. 


NOTE  BY  THE  EDITOR. 


The  following  description  of  the  Syrian  Coast  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  author's  large  work  on  Biblical  Geography  after  his  first 
plan  (see  Preface).  It  was  written  before  his  second  journey  to  the 
East,  the  results  of  which  were  his  Later  Bibhcal  Researches  in  Pal- 
estine and  the  adjacent  regions.  There  is  no  doubt  that  on  re- 
suming his  work  on  Biblical  Geography,  upon  a  somewhat  different 
plan,  and  beginning  with  Palestine  as  the  very  nucleus  of  the  Central 
Region,  the  following  pages,  with  additions  and  improvements  from 
the  author's  hand,  would  have  formed  the  second  part  of  his  work, 
and  have  followed  immediately  the  description  of  Palestine.  The 
editor,  in  producing  this  valuable  fragment  in  its  existing  form,  has 
been  careful  to  add  the  necessary  references  to  the  Later  Biblical 
Researches  of  the  author,  which  are  partially  devoted  to  the  Leba- 
anon  and  the  surrounding  country. 

Th.  B. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHY  OP  THE  SYRIAN  COAST, 

EXTENDING  FROM  ASIA  MINOR  TO  THE  RED  SEA. 


The  general  features  of  this  region  may  be  tlms  specified : 
A  double  range  of  parallel  mountains,  in  part  lofty,  running 
longitudinally  and  with  few  interruptions  throughout  the 
whole  extent ;  between  these,  for  nearly  the  whole  distance, 
a  deep  longitudinal  valley  or  trough,  in  which  rivers  run  in 
opposite  directions,  or  spread  out  into  lakes  ;  the  southern 
portion  being  partly  a  desert  and  partly  occupied  by  the 
waters  of  the  Red  Sea;  while  along  the  outer  bases  of  the 
mountains  are  narrow  plains,  skirted  on  one  side  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Arabian  Desert. 
The  mountains  are  a  branch  thrown  off  nearly  at  right  an- 
gles towards  the  south,  from  the  great  chain  of  Mount  Tau- 
rus in  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  north,  we  have,  first.  Mount  Amanus,  a  lofty  spur  of 
Taurus ;  which,  after  enclosing  in  its  fork  the  northeastern 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean  or  Bay  of  Issus,  extends  south- 
ward along  the  coast  to  the  Orontes  ;  where  that  river,  turn- 
ing westward  from  its  former  course,  breaks  through  the 
mountains  to  the  sea.  Next  comes  the  broad  valley  of  the 
Orontes,  with  Mount  Casius  and  its  prolongations  on  the 
west,  and  other  lesser  ranges  of  mountains  on  the  east.  Then 
follows  the  more  imposing  valley  of  the  Leontes,  the  modern 


334         PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  SYRIAN  COAST. 


Buka'a,  shut  in  by  the  towering  ridges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon  with  Hermon  ;  the  various  peaks  of  which  rise  to 
an  elevation  of  nine  or  ten  thousand  feet.  Here  is  the  lofti- 
est portion  of  the  whole  region. 

To  this  succeeds  the  longer  and  lower  valley  of  the  Jordan 
with  its  three  lakes  ;  extending  also  beyond  the  Dead  Sea, 
but  without  streams,  quite  to  the  Red  Sea,  where  it  forms 
the  Gulf  of  'Akabah.  The  mountains  which  enclose  this 
latter  valley  are  lower  prolongations  of  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon  ;  sometimes  spreading  out  into  plateaus  of  table- 
land ;  and  again  rising  into  higher  tracts,  like  Mount  Gilead 
on  the  east,  and  the  country  around  Hebron  on  the  west. 
The  western  range,  at  its  southern  extremity,  expands  into 
the  broken  ridges  and  lofty  groups  of  Sinai ;  some  of 
which  have  an  elevation  of  more  than  eight  thousand  feet. 

The  whole  tract  thus  described  lies  betw^een  Lat.  27°  45' 
N.,  and  Lat.  36°  55'  N.  It  thus  has  a  length  of  about  five 
hundred  and  fifty  geographical  miles  ;  while  its  average 
breadth,  between  the  sea  and  the  desert,  is  not  more  than 
about  seventy-five  miles.  The  northern  and  southern  extrem- 
ities of  the  coast  are  nearly  in  Long.  36°  and  34°  E.  from 
Greenwich ;  so  that  the  general  direction  of  the  region  is 
not  far  from  N.  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W. 

If  we  regard  this  long  narrow  region  as  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  parallels  of  latitude,  —  one  drawn  from  near  Tyre 
through  the  lower  sources  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  other  at  a 
short  distance  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  —  then  the  northern 
portion  comprehends  Syria  Proper,  including  Phenicia  ;  the 
middle  portion  embraces  all  the  Holy  Land,  from  Dan  to 
Beersheba  ;  and  the  southern  portion  takes  in  on  the  east 
Arabia  Petrasa  (except  Moab),  and  on  the  west  the  desert 
and  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai.    We  follow  this  order. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHY  OF  SYKIA  PEOPEE, 


INCLUDING  ANCIENT  PHENICIA. 


This  country,  as  we  have  seen,  forms  the  northern  portion 
of  the  region  of  the  Syrian  coast,  adjacent  to  Asia  Minor,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  soutli  very  nearly  by  a  parallel  of  latitude 
drawn  through  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  at  Banias.  Its 
length  is  thus  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles.  The 
breadth  varies  ;  being  at  Antioch  about  eighty  miles,  and  at 
Damascus  about  sixty  miles.  Opposite  to  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean  is  the  great  western  bend  of  the 
Euphrates,  where  that  river  approaches  nearest  to  this  sea. 
The  interval  between  is  about  ninety  miles. 

I.    SURFACE:  MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 

The  physical  features  of  this  land  divide  it  naturally  into 
three  portions ;  namely,  the  tract  north  of  the  Orontes  ;  the 
valley  of  the  Orontes  ;  and  the  valley  of  the  Leontes. 

The  first  or  northern  tract  is  about  forty-five  miles  in 
length.  Its  main  feature  is  the  single  range  of  Mount  Ama- 
nus  ;  the  general  elevation  of  which  is  given  at  five  thousand 
to  six  thousand  feet.  Its  southern  part,  towards  the  mouth 
of  the  Orontes,  bore  the  name  of  Mount  Pierius ;  throwing 
out  a  large  promontory  on  the  coast  north  of  Seleucia.  On 


336  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


these  mountains  are  extensive  forests.  Two  celebrated  pass- 
es break  through  the  ridge  of  Amanus,  called  gates  (pijlae)  ; 
namely,  the  Pylae  of  Amanus,  so  called,  north  of  Issus  ;  an(J 
the  Pylae  of  Syria,  south  of  Alexandria  (Iskandarun) ,  at 
Beilan.  This  latter  pass  is  the  usual  road  between  Antioch 
and  Alexandria.^  The  plain  along  the  coast  is  quite  narrow. 
It  is  interrupted  by  the  promontory  from  Mount  Pierius; 
and  also  by  spurs  running  down  to  the  sea  north  of  Alex- 
andria. Here  is  another  celebrated  pass  along  the  shore, 
called  the  Pylae  of  Syria-Cilicia. 

Adjacent  to  Mount  Amanus  on  the  east  is  alow  district  or 
valley  drained  by  the  Kara  Su  (Black  water)  ;  beyond  which 
the  country  is  hilly,  but  not  unfertile,  as  far  as  to  the  hollow 
of  the  ancient  Chains,  the  stream  on  which  Aleppo  is  situa- 
ted. This  tract  has  a  medium  elevation  of  five  hundred  to  six 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Beyond  the  Chains  the  country 
is  undulating  and  tolerably  fertile  quite  to  the  Euphrates ; 
with  a  medium  height  above  the  sea  of  about  twelve  hundred 
feet.  The  level  of  the  Euphrates  at  Bir,  is  six  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.^ 

The  second  or  middle  tract  extends  from  Antioch  to  the 
plain  north  of  Lebanon,  about  eighty-five  miles  in  length. 
South  of  the  Orontes,  on  the  coast,  Mount  Casius  forms  a 
lofty  promontory.  The  elevation  of  its  pyramidal  summit  is 
given  at  five  thousand  three  hundred  and  forty-one  feet ;  ^  it 
is  now  called  Jebel  Akra.  Its  lower  ridges  stretch  towards  the 
east  along  the  lower  valley  of  the  Orontes  ;  and  connect  with 

1  Chesney  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1837,  pp.  414,  415.  Po- 
cocke,  II.  pp.  174, 175.  Niebuhr,  Reiseb.  III.  p.  18.  Kicpert's  Map  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, 1846. 

2  Chesney  in  Jour,  of  the  R.  Geogr.  Soc,  1837,  pp.  416,  419.  Ritter,  X.  pp. 
951,  1029. 

3  Ainsworth's  Researches  in  Assyria,  etc.,  p.  305. 


xMOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 


337 


another  southern  range,  perhaps  the  Anti-Casius  of  antiquity. 
This  latter  extends  southward  in  various  ridges  and  with 
many  defiles  quite  to  the  plain  by  Lebanon  ;  where  its  ridges 
terminate  in  steep  wooded  hills.  One  of  these  is  now  sur- 
mounted by  the  imposing  fortress  el-Husn,  formerly  known 
as  Husn  cl-Akrad,  .or  castle  of  the  Kurds.^  The  ancient 
name  of  this  mountainous  chain  is  lost ;  except  perhaps  at 
the  southern  end,  where  it  seems  to  correspond  to  the  Mons 
Bargyhis  of  Pliny. ^  It  is  now  called  Jebel  en  Nusairiyeh, 
from  the  people  of  that  name  who  inhabit  it,  an  heretical 
sect  of  Muhammedan  origin.^ 

This  range,  especially  in  the  northern  part,  is  richly 
wooded  with  pine,  oak,  and  various  other  kinds  of  trees.  The 
main  body  of  the  mountains  is  chalky  limestone  with  flint. 
In  the  southern  parts  there  is  much  trap  rock  ;  and  towards 
the  north  and  around  Mount  Casius  there  is  also  found  ser- 
pentine, talc,  and  sandstone.*  Eastward  of  this  chain,  and 
parallel  to  it,  is  another  irregular  range  of  mountains,  ex- 
tending from  near  the  bend  of  the  Orontes  to  some  distance 
south  of  Hamah  ;  the  ancient  name  of  which  is  also  lost. 
The  northern  part  is  now  called  Jebel  Riha  from  a  village 
upon  it ;  further  south  it  takes  various  local  names. 

Between  these  two  ranges  stretches  the  noble  valley  or 
plain  of  the  Orontes,  now  called  el-Ghab.  Its  breadth  is 
about  five  miles  in  the  southern  part,  but  lessens  towards 
the  north.  The  river  flows  near  the  foot  of  the  western 
mountains,  where  it  forms  numerous  marshes.  Burckhardt 

1  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  102.   Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  158. 

2  Pliny,  Hist.  Xat.,  5.  17.   Pococke,  II.  p.  204. 

3  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  390,  557. 

<  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  224  sq.    W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841, 
p.  234.   Russegger,  I.  p.  448. 
«  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  148. 

43 


338  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  SYPJAN  COAST. 

speaks  of  this  as  a  beautiful  valley,  which  he  could  compare 
only  to  the  Buka'a  between  the  two  Leba^ons ;  but  the 
Ghab  has  the  great  advantage  of  being  abundantly  watered.^ 
In  the  parallel  of  Antioch  the  mountains  disappear ;  and  a 
vast  plain  opens  towards  the  east  and  north  ;  while  the  val- 
ley with  the  river,  sweeping  around  the  northern  end  of  the 
western  chain,  continues  towards  the  southwest  quite  to  the 
sea.  Below  Antioch  the  valley  contracts  and  is  skirted  by 
precipices  ;  but  it  again  opens  towards  the  sea  into  a  broad 
plain.  The  scenery  of  this  portion  of  the  valley  is  described 
as  romantic  and  very  beautiful 

The  narrow  plain  along  the  coast  begins  on  the  south  of 
Mount  Casius,  not  far  north  of  Laodicea,  and  reaches  to 
Tripoli.  Towards  the  southern  end  of  the  mountains  of 
the  Nusairiyeh  and  north  of  Lebanon,  it  becomes  broad  and 
extensive,  and  is  known  as  the  plain  of  'Akkar  (Jun  'Akk^r), 
or  simply  Junia.  From  it  there  extends  up  towards  the 
southeast,  between  the  northern  mountains  and  Lebanon,  an 
arm  of  some  width  ;  which  is  described  as  connecting  be- 
yond the  mountains  with  the  northern  part  of  the  great 
valley  of  the  Buka'a.  This  latter  here  spreads  out  on  the 
north  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  into  rich  plains  towards 
Hums  and  Hamah,  forming  a  boundless  tract  of  level  coun- 
try, which  gradually  loses  itself  in  the  eastern  desert.^  The 
region  stretching  from  Aleppo  towards  the  south,  is  mostly 
an  imdulating  and  sometimes  rugged  desert,  now  inhabited 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  134,  136. 

2  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  225.  Russegger,  I.  p.  363.  See  the  author's  description 
of  this  valley  after  he  had  seen  it  himself,  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  548  sq. 

s  Biblical  Researches,  IIL,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  181.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p. 
160.  Pococke,  IL  p.  204.  Buckingham,  Arab  Tr.,  pp.  495,  503.  O.  v.  Richter, 
p.  2a3. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS.  339 

by  nomadic  Arabs  ;  but  affording  frequent  traces  of  ancient 
towns  and  villager. 

Of  all  the  mountains  and  valleys  thus  far  described,  none 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  But  in  the  third  or  southern 
tract,  which  includes  the  district  of  Lebanon,  we  tread  on 
Scripture  ground.  It  extends  from  the  plain  just  described 
on  the  north  of  Lebanon  to  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  at 
Banias,  a  distance  of  about  ninety  miles.  Within  these 
limits  lie  the  two  great  ranges  of  I^ebanon  and  Anti-Leba- 
non, so  prominent  in  Scripture,  rising  up  from  the  plain  on 
the  north,  and  running  nearly  parallel  to  each  other  through 
their  whole  extent.  The  two  ranges,  however,  have  each  a 
distinct  and  different  character.  The  former  has  its  highest 
summits  in  the  north,  and  gradually  declines  towards  the 
south  ;  the  latter  is  lower  in  the  north,  but  terminates  in  the 
south  in  the  towering  peaks  of  Hermon.^ 

The  range  of  Lebanon  rises  from  the  north,  at  first  gradu- 
ally, and  then  more  boldly,  into  a  lofty  central  ridge,  mostly 
barren,  which  forms  (^o  to  speak)  the  spine  of  the  whole 
mountain.  From  this  high  ridge,  the  eastern  declivity,  to- 
wards the  Buka'a,  is  steep,  with  few  streams,  and  mostly 
without  tillage  or  inhabitants.^  The  western  declivity,  on  the 
contrary,  is  longer  and  more  gradual ;  forming  indeed  be- 
low the  main  ridge  an  elevated  slope  of  hills,  deep  valleys, 
and  open  tracts,  mostly  fit  for  cultivation,  watered  by  many 
streams,  and  at  the  present  day  teeming  with  the  frequent 
villages  of  a  thrifty  population.  Next  the  sea  this  lower 
region  sinks  down  more  steeply ;  so  that,  to  one  looking  up 
from  below,  the  whole  mountain  side  appears  as  if  composed 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  48,  50. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  HI.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  140.  See  a  description  of  the 
eastern  declivity  in  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  421,  530,  546-548. 


340 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


only  of  immense  rugged  masses  of  naked,  whitish  rock,  sev- 
ered by  deep  wild  ravines  running  down  precipitously  to 
the  plain.  This  whitish  appearance  of  the  mountain  as  the 
light  is  reflected  from  its  rocky  surface,  sufficiently  accounts 
for  the  ancient  name  "  Lebanon,"  signifying  in  Hebrew  the 
"  White  Mountain."  The  name  was  not  derived  from  its 
snows  ;  for,  in  summer,  snow  is  found  only  in  high  sheltered 
places  not  visible  from  below  ;  so  that  the  summits  are  not 
whitened  by  it.  The  mountain  still  bears  among  the  Arabs 
the  general  name  of  Jcbel  Libnan  ;  while  its  various  parts  are 
known  among  the  inhabitants  by  different  local  appellations. 

The  loftier  summits  of  Lebanon  rise  along  the  high  central 
ridge  ;  which,  in  the  intervals,  presents  not  very  uneven 
tracts  of  table-land,  covered  with  a  scanty  pasturage.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  mountain  is  now  called  Jebel  'Akkar. 
The  northernmost  peak  rises  southeast  of  Tripoli,  and  is 
known  on  the  coast  as  Jebel  Mukhmal.^  Its  elevation  is 
given  at  eight  thousand  four  hundred  Paris  feet.^  Then  fol- 
lows, after  a  long  interval,  Jebel  Suniiin,  north  of  east  from 
Beirut,  generally  regarded  as  the  highest  point  of  Lebanon. 
The  usual  estimate  of  its  elevation  is  from  nine  thousand 
to  ten  thousand  feet.  Li  the  ravines  around  both  these  sum- 
mits, snow  is  found  during  the  whole  summer;  and  from 
Siinnin  it  is  carried  away  on  mules  to  supply  Beirut  with 
a  luxury.  A  few  miles  further  south  is  Jebel  Keneiseh,  a 
lower  summit,  just  north  of  the  pass  el-Mughitbeh  on  the 
road  from  Beirut  to  Damascus.^ 

From  this  point  southward  the  highest  part  of  the  moun- 

^  E.  Smith,  Ms.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  593  sq. 
*  Russcggcr,  I.  p.  717. 

'  Later  Biblical  Researches:  "  The  first,  el-Keniseh  is  marked  by  Petermann  at 
7245  feet.   Siinnin,  according  to  Marshal  Marmont,  is  about  8300  English  feet. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 


341 


tain  forms  again  a  single  uniform  ridge  nearly  to  Jczzm,  where 
it  becomes  broader,  and  is  broken  up  into  irregular  peaks 
and  ridges.  In  this  part  it  bears  different  local  names. 
Opposite  to  Kefr  Huneh  it  takes  the  name  of  Jebel  Rihan, 
from  a  village  further  south ;  and  the  ridge,  as  such,  finally 
terminates  at  the  river  Litany,  where  it  flows  in  a  western 
course  between  the  bridges  of  Biirghuz  and  Khurdela.  The 
whole  southern  part  of  Lebanon  is  sometimes  also  called 
Jebel  ed-Deruz,  Mountain  of  the  Druzes,  as  being  the  chief 
residence  of  that  singular  people. 

On  the  western  Lebanon,  below  the  central  ridge,  the 
larger  streams  are  generally  formed  by  several  tributaries, 
coming  from  deep  valleys  or  ravines.  Indeed,  the  valleys  of 
all  this  region  have  in  general  a  uniform  character.  Except 
at  their  heads,  where  they  are  shallow  and  sometimes  form 
basins  of  fertile  land,  they  are  mostly  of  great  depth ;  their 
sides  rising  up  as  mountains,  and  being  marked  by  regular 
features.  From  the  bottom  there  is  first  an  acclivity  ;  then, 
usually  about  halfway  up,  there  is  a  precipice  ;  and  above  this 
precipice  the  ascent  becomes  more  gradual.  Along  it  villa- 
ges are  built  (as  also  below  the  precipice),  and  it  connects 
itself  without  interruption  with  the  arable  land  above.  In 
the  northern  part  of  the  mountain,  the  course  of  these  val- 
leys to  the  sea  is  northwest.  In  the  middle  part,  north  of 
the  Damascus  road,  they  descend  towards  the  west  and  south- 
west. South  of  that  road  they  run  first  south,  and  then 
west,  to  the  sea.  Thus  the  valley  of  the  Awaly,  the  ancient 
Bostrenus,  begins  near  the  Damascus  road,  and  takes  its 

One  summit  above  the  cedars,  Fum  el-Mizab,  was  found  by  Dr.  De  Forest  in  1853 
to  be  9135  feet  high.  Another  adjacent  peak,  Dahar  el-Khudib,  was  estimated 
by  him  as  at  least  175  feet  higher;  in  all  9310  feet.  This  is  the  highest  point  of 
Lebanon."   p.  547;  see  also  pp.  15,  489,  494.— Ed. 


342 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAriiY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


course  south  to  the  vicinity  of  Jezzm  ;  separating  the  west- 
ern tract  of  the  mountain  from  the  high  ridge,  and  forming 
thus  two  parallel  ranges.  Then,  turning  west  almost  at  a 
right  angle,  it  breaks  its  way  as  a  deep  alluvial  valley  down 
to  the  sea  near  Sidon.  The  higher  portion  of  western  Leba- 
non may  be  said  to  terminate  here  ;  its  prolongation  on  the 
south  of  the  Awaly  being  lower  and  constituting  the  broad 
trAct  of  table-land  whicli  extends  beyond  Tyre,  and  goes  to 
form  the  hills  of  Galilee.^ 

The  rock  of  which  Lebanon  is  composed  is  the  Jura  lime- 
stone, with  petrifactions  of  muscles  and  fish  to  the  height  of 
three  thousand  feet.^  East  of  Beirut,  high  up  on  the  side 
of  the  mountain,  near  Kurnayil,  are  mines  of  coal ;  and  still 
higher,  some  of  iron  ;  but  none  of  these  have  yet  been 
wrought  to  advantage.^  Notwithstanding  tha  naked  appear- 
ance of  Lebanon  at  a  distance,  it  everywhere  abounds  in 
fertile  soil,  and  the  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are 
numerous  and  abundant.  In  the  higher  parts  are  tracts  of 
pines,  which  furnish  timber  for  the  neighboring  countries  ; 
nor  have  the  cedars,  the  ancient  glory  of  Lebanon,  by  any 
means  disappeared.  A  grove  of  several  hundred  cedars  near 
Ehden  in  the  highest  region  of  the  mountain,  many  of  them 
V3ncrable  for  their  great  age  and  size,  was  long  supposed  to 

1  In  this  description  of  Lebanon  the  main  features  are  derived  from  a  manu- 
script journal  of  Rev.  E.  Smith,  who  resided  for  years  on  the  mountain,  and 
traversed  every  part  of  it.  Comp.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  19.  [A  few  years  after 
writing  this,  the  author  had  occasion  to  convince  himself,  by  personal  inves- 
tigation, of  the  correctness  of  this  description,  and  to  add  the  results  of  his  own 
examination  of  the  locality.  See  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  14,  36,  37,  42, 
530,  547  sq.,  G24  sq.— Ed.] 

2  Humboldt  on  Ehrenberg  and  Hampricht's  Journeys  in  Abhandlungen  der 
Perl.  Acad.,  1846,  p.  131.  Burckhardt,  p.  19.  See  also  Cedrenus  and  Glycus, 
quoted  by  Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  321. 

8  Russegger,  I.  p.  779  sq.,  788  sq.   Bowling's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  20. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 


343 


be  the  only  remnant  of  this  noble  tree  upon  its  native  soil. 
Later  travellers,  however,  have  found  the  cedar  growing 
abundantly  on  the  more  northern  parts  of  Lebanon  ;  though 
none  so  large  and  venerable.^  In  that  particular  grove  there 
are  about  a  dozen  patriarchal  trees,  formed  each  by  the  union 
of  three  or  four  trunks,  and  remarkable  for  their  age  and 
immense  size.  Around  these  have  shot  up  about  three  hun- 
dred single  trees,  some  of  them  quite  large,  and  many  that 
would  be  admired  in  any  place  for  their  beauty.  Their 
straight  stem  and  spreading  branches,  and  the  graceful  sym- 
metry of  the  whole,  fairly  entitle  them  to  be  regarded  as 
"  the  glory  of  Lebanon."  The  cones,  beautifully  pendant 
from  the  bottom  of  the  branches,  exude  a  kind  of  balsam, 
highly  fragrant,  which  fully  explains  the  poetical  allusion  to 
"  the  smell  of  Lebanon."  ^ 

The  oak,  walnut,  plane,  silver  poplar,  acacia,  and  various 
other  trees  are  not  infrequent.  The  olive  and  the  mulberry 
are  widely  cultivated ;  the  one  for  its  oil,  and  the  other  as 
food  for  silkworms.  The  wine  of  Lebanon  was  celebrated  of 
old.^  At  present  extensive  vineyards  surround  many  of  the 
villages,  the  vines  being  left  to  run  upon  the  ground.  The 
fruit  is  mostly  eaten,  or  is  converted  into  raisins  and  dibs 
(sirup)  ;  a  small  part  only  is  made  into  wine,  which  is  still 
accounted  of  superior  excellence.*  Not  a  little  of  the  soil 
is  arable,  and  is  used  for  crops,  chiefly  of  wdieat,  maize, 

1  Biblical  Researches,  11.  p.  493  [III.  p.  440].  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp. 
588-593. 

2  S.  Wolcott  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  86.  Is.  Ix.  13;  Cant.  iv.  11.  [See  a 
full  description  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  in  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  588- 
593.— Ed.] 

3  Hosea  xiv.  7. 

4  E.  Smith  on  the  Wines  of  Lebanon,  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1&46,  p.  385  sq.  Bow- 
ring's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  17. 


214 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


and  tobacco.^  Where  the  acclivities  are  too  steep  for  ordi- 
nary tillage,  terraces  are  built  up  along  them  with  great  la- 
bor and  covered  with  soil.  Indeed,  the  whole  surface  of 
the  mountain  bears  marks  of  patient  industry  and  thrift, 
indicating  a  numerous  population  of  hardy,  laborious,  inde- 
pendent mountaineers. 

The  ancient  renown  of  Lebanon  for  beauty  and  fertility 
extended  beyond  Palestine.  Moses  prayed  :  "  Let  me  go 
over  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that  goodly 
mountain,  even  Lebanon."  ^  It  is  mentioned  by  name  in 
Scripture  no  less  than  sixty-eight  times  ;  at  first  as  lying  on 
the  northern  border  of  the  Promised  Land ;  ^  and  then  often 
for  its  cedars.  The  wood  of  these  was  used  in  building  both 
the  first  and  second  temple ;  ^  as  also  for  Solomon's  palace 
and  its  furniture.^  To  the  Hebrew  poet  the  stately  cedar 
of  Lebanon  was  an  emblem  of  the  good  man  flourishing  in 
the  favor  of  God  ;  sometimes  also  of  the  prosperous  wicked  ; 
and  again  of  the  glory  of  idolatrous  Assyria.^  More  fre- 
quently it  was  an  image  of  grace  and  beauty.^  The  fra- 
grance of  the  forests  and  flowers  of  Lebanon  was  also  an 
object  of  poetic  comparison.^ 

The  name  Lebanon  in  Scripture  is  sometimes  supposed  to 
have  comprehended  also  the  eastern  mountain  ;  and  in  five 
instances  where  the  Hebrew  has  Lebanon,  the  Septuagint 
reads  Anti-Lebanon.^  But  this  view  would  seem  not  well 
founded.  The  southern  part  of  Anti-Lebanon  is  always 
known  in  Scripture  as  Mount  Hermon  ;  and  as  to  the  nortli- 

1  Bowring's  Report  on  Syria,  pp.  8,  18. 

2  Deut.  iii.  25.  ^  Dcut.  i.  7,  xi.  24.   Josh.  i.  4,  xiii.  6. 
*  1  Kings  V.  G,  ix.  14;  Ezra  iii.  7.      ^  1  Kings  vii.  2,  x.  21 ;  Cant.  iii.  9. 

6  Ps.  xcii.  12,  Ps.  xxix.  5;  Is.  ii.  12,  13;  Ezek.  xxxi.  3  sq. 

'  Judg.  ix.  15;  2  Kings  xiv.  9,  xix.  23;  comp.  Is.  xiv.  8,  xxxvii.  24. 

s  Hosea  xiv.  6;  Cant.  iv.  11.  9  Deut.  i.  7,  iii.  25,  xi.  24;  Josh  i.  4,  ix.  1. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 


crii  part,  if  mentioned  at  all,  it  is  probably  under  the  name 
of  Scnir.^  The  Mount  Hor  spoken  of  as  a  point  in  the  north- 
ern border  of  the  Israelites,  would  seem  to  have  been  either 
the  northern  end  of  Lebanon  Proper,  or  a  spur  connected 
with  it .2 

The  main  ridge  of  Anti-Lebanon  begins  also  from  the 
north,  over  against  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon,  some  fif- 
teen miles  south  of  Hums,  and  north  of  Hasya  on  the  road 
to  Damascus  ;  where  the  eastern  plain  extends  around  it 
quite  to  the  Orontes.^  Like  Lebanon,  it  is  composed  of  Jura 
limestone.  It  may  be  regarded  as  made  up  of  two  parts, 
lying  north  and  south  of  the  parallel  of  Damascus  ;  or  rather 
as  divided  at  a  point  somewhat  north  of  that  parallel.  The 
northern  part  now  bears  the  name  of  Jebel  esh-Shurky,  or 
East  Mountain.  It  is  a  long  and  not  uneven  ridge,  less 
lofty  than  Lebanon ;  and  in  contrast  to  that  mountain, 
having  its  steepest  declivity  on  the  west  towards  the  Buka'a, 
almost  without  streams  or  villages.  The  top  of  the  ridge 
forms  in  some  places  a  broad  tract  of  uneven  table-land. 
The  eastern  declivity  is  quite  gradual ;  or  rather  this  eastern 
side  is  characterized  by  successive  lower  ridges  with  interven- 
ing open  tracts,  or  terraces,  running  parallel  with  its  course, 
and  presenting  towards  the  east  steep  declivities  and  some- 
times perpendicular  precipices.  The  river  Barada,  which, 
rising  high  up  in  the  mountain,  flows  by  Damascus,  the  only 
important  stream  of  Anti-Lebanon,  breaks  through  no  less 
than  three  such  ridges.  The  surface  of  this  portion  of  the 
mountain  north  of  the  Barada,  is  naked  and  barren ;  and 
several  spurs  from  the  mountain,  or  rather  from  the  parallel 

1  1  Chr.  V.  23;  Cant.  iv.  8.  2  Num.  xxiv.  7,  8. 

3  Biblical  Researclics,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  17L  Irby  and  Mangles,  p  281. 
Buckingham,  Arab  Tr.,  p.  488. 

44 


346 


niYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


ridges,  having  the  same  general  character,  extend  into  the 
desert  in  the  direction  of  Palmyra  ;  forming  the  rugged  and 
broken  country  crossed  by  the  caravan  road  from  Damascus 
to  Hums.^ 

The  southern  portion  of  Anti-Lebanon  slightly  trends  still 
further  towards  the  southwest ;  and  rises  south  of  Rasheiya 
into  the  lofty  peaks  of  Jebel  esh-Slieikh,  the  Mount  Hermon 
of  Scripture,  the  highest  of  all  the  Syrian  mountains-,  estima- 
ted at  more  than  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  some- 
times called  also  Jebel  et-Telj,  or  Snowy  Mountain.^  Both  its 
eastern  and  western  sides  are  steep  and  uninhabited.  In  the 
ravines  around  the  higher  of  the  two  peaks,  snow  or  rather 
ice  lies  during  the  whole  year ;  and  hence  in  summer  the 
mountain  presents  at  a  distance  the  appearance  of  radiant 
stripes  descending  from  its  crown.  In  the  fourth  century 
the  snows  of  Hermon  were  carried  to  Tyre  in  summer  as  a 
luxury.^  Tlie  ridge  afterwards  slopes  off  gradually  and 
irregularly  towards  the  W.  S.  W.,  quite  down  to  the  mouth 
of  Wady  et-Teim,  northwest  of  Banias.  From  the  south- 
eastern base  of  the  highest  part  of  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  a  low 
broad  spur  or  mountainous  tract,  called  Jebel  Heish,  runs 
off  towards  the  south,  and  forms  a  prolongation  of  Anti-Leb- 
anon, in  the  high  land  which  shuts  in  on  the  east  the  basin 
of  the  Hulch  and  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.^ 

Mount  Hermon,  although  its  majestic  form  is  visible  from 
the  greater  part  of  northern  Palestine,  is  mentioned  in 
Scripture  only  twelve  times ;  and  then  chiefly  as  marking  a 

1  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition.  Appendix,  p.  171. 

2  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  163. 

3  Jerome,  Onomast.,  article  JErmon. 

*  For  a  short  descriptive  sketch  of  the  two  mountains  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leb- 
anon, see  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  .MG,  547.  —  Ed. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  PLAINS. 


347 


boundary.  There  are  but  three  poetical  allusions  to  it ;  ^ 
for  as  contrasted  with  Lebanon,  it  is  steep  and  rugged,  with- 
out fertility,  or  cedars,  or  flowers  ;  and  had,  therefore,  far 
less  of  poetic  charm.  On  account  of  its  two  summits,  it  is 
once  spoken  of  in  the  plural,  as  the  Hermons?  By  the  Sido- 
nians  it  was  called  Shirion  ;  and  by  the  half-nomadic  Amo- 
rites,  Senir.^  But  Hermon  and  Senir  are  also  sometimes 
distinguished.*  The  latter  was  probably  the  specific  name 
of  another  portion  of  Anti-Lebanon,  occasionally  applied  to 
the  wliole.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  name  Senir,  handed 
down  perhaps  by  tradition  from  the  tribes  of  the  desert, 
was  current  among  the  Arabs  for  the  ridge  of  Anti-Lebanon 
north  of  Damascus.^  Once  Hermon  is  said  to  be  the  same  as 
Mount  Sion;  which  latter  may  here  be  nothing  more  than  an 
epithet,  signifying  "  the  lofty."  ^  The  name  Amana  is  like- 
wise mentioned  along  with  Senir  and  Hermon  ;  '  it  was  prob- 
ably applied  to  the  middle  portion  of  Anti-Lebanon  around 
the  sources  of  the  river  Barada,  tlie  ancient  Amana.  Mount 
Baal-Hermon  would  seem  to  have  been  nothing  more  than 
that  part  of  Hermon  which  was  adjacent  to  the  city  Baal- 
Hermon.^ 

Between  the  mighty  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon, 
thus  presenting  their  steepest  walls  over  against  each  other, 
lies  the  BukcVa,  the  valley  or  plain  watered  by  the  ancient 
Leontes,  now  called  the  Litany.  It  is  the  proper  Coele- Syria 
of  the  ancients.^    The  general  breadth  of  the  valley  is  from 

I  Ps.  Ixxxix.  12,  cxxxiii.  3;  Cant.  iv.  8.        2  ps.  xlii.  6. 

8  Deut.  iii.  9.  1  Chron.  v.  23;  Cant.  iv.  8. 

s  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  164.  6  Deut.  iv.  48. 

^  Cant.  iv.  8. 

8  Judg.  iii.  3;  comp.  1  Chron.  v.  23.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  409,  410. 

9  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  54G. 


348 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


four  to  six  miles  ;  ^  the  steep  sides  of  the  mountains  on  either 
hand  rising  to  an  elevation  of  five  thousand  to  six  thousand 
feet.  The  Buka'a  is  irrigated  by  several  streams,  though 
not  profusely  watered.  In  it  is  a  watershed  a  few  miles 
nortli  of  Ba'albek,  marked  by  low  hills  ;  south  of  which  the 
streams  all  flow  to  the  Litany  ;  while  just  north  are  the 
sources  of  the  Orontes,  which  send  their  waters  northward 
to  Antioch.  The  elevation  of  the  valley  at  Ba'albok  is  given 
at  three  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety-six  Paris  feet.^ 

From  the  point  on  the  western  side  where  Jcbel  esli-Sheikh 
begins,  and  the  ridge  trends  more  westerly,  a  low  spur  is 
thrown  off  towards  the  southwest ;  which,  being  prolonged 
as  a  broad  ridge  of  arable  land  diverging  more  and  more 
from  the  eastern  mountain,  runs  obliquely  along  the  Buka'a 
as  if  to  join  itself  to  the  southern  end  of  Lebanon  near 
Burghuz.  By  this  low  ridge  the  southern  portion  of  the 
great  valley  is  gradually  narrowed  to  a  point ;  from  which 
the  Litany  forces  its  way  through  the  continuation  of  Leb- 
anon by  a  deep  and  very  narrow  chasm,  foaming  and  dash- 
ing over  rocks  for  miles  between  high  precipices,  until  it 
issues  upon  the  plain  and  joins  the  sea  north  of  Tyre. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  same  arable  ridge,  as  it  diverges 
from  Jebel  esh-Sheikh,  is  formed  the  higher  valley,  or  rather 
hilly  tract,  now  known  as  Wady  et~Teim.  Its  head  is  north 
of  Muhaiditheh,  where  it  has  an  open  connection  by  a  low 
watershed  with  the  Buka'a,  near  'Ain  Faluj.  At  this  point  its 
elevation  is  five  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  above  the  Li- 
tany.^ At  its  southern  extremity  this  valley  becomes  narrow, 
and  enters  the  plain  of  Banias  at  the  northwest  corner.  In 

1  Schubert,  III.  p.  322. 

2  Russeggcr,  I.  p.  702.   Schubert  has  3572  Paris  feet;  III.  p.  322. 

3  E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal. 


MOUNTAINS,  VALLEYS,  TLAINS. 


349 


this  valley,  near  Hasbeiya,  is  the  remotest  "perennial  source 
of  the  Jordan  ;  which  thus  flows  for  a  short  distance  parallel 
with  the  Litany,  though  on  a  higher  level.  Not  improbably 
this  may  be  the  particular  "  valley  of  Lebanon  under  Mount 
Hermon,"  spoken  of  in  Scripture. ^ 

On  tlie  seacoast,  the  Junia  or  plain,  as  we  have  seen,  termi- 
nates at  Tripoli,  which  lies  upon  a  low  triangular  point  ex- 
tending into  the  sea,  with  many  small  islands  beyond.  Thence 
.southwards  the  shore  hugs  the  skirts  of  Lebanon  as  far  as  to 
Beirut.  In  one  part  a  high  promontory,  the  ancient  Theu- 
prosopon,  now  called  Ras  esh-Shiika,  cuts  off  all  passage  along 
the  sea  ;  and  nowhere  is  there  more  than  a  narrow  strip  of 
level  land.  The  low  triangular  headland  of  Beirut  projects 
several  miles  into  the  sea ;  and  is  for  the  most  part  level  or 
slightly  undulating,  with  ranges  of  sandhills  along  its  south- 
westerii  side.  Beyond  this  there  is  another  narrow  and 
irregular  level  strip  of  coast  ;  until  towards  Sidon  the  skirts 
of  the  mountain  again  reach  down  to  the  sea.  South  of 
the  Awaly  and  back  of  Sidon,  the  mountains  for  a  fevf  miles 
recede  and  leave  a  broader  amphitheatre  ;  but  they  soon 
return  towards  the  shore,  and  confine  the  plain  to  narrow 
limits,  until  it  expands  again  back  of  Tyre,  and  then  termi- 
nates a  few  miles  beyond  in  the  White  Promontory,  now 
called  Ras  el-Abyad.  This  is  the  celebrated  Phenician  plain 
between  Tyre  and  Sidon,  so  often  spoken  of  in  Scripture  and 
in  profane  writers.  Its  breadth  is  unequal ;  but  is  seldom 
greater  than  a  mile,  except  around  the  two  cities.  The  sur- 
face is  not  a  dead  level,  but  gently  undulating. 

East  of  the  mountains,  the  region  south  of  the  rich  plains 
of  Hums,  as  far  as  to  Damascus,  is  intersected,  as  we  have 

1  Josh.  xi.  17;  comp.  xiii.  5.  A  circumstantial  description  of  the  Bulia'a  and 
Wady  ct-Teim  in  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  492-504. 


350 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYEIA  PROPER. 


*  seen,  by  barren  ridges  thrown  off  towards  the  northeast  from 
'  the  parallel  ledges  connected  with  Anti-Lebanon.  These 
impart  to  the  country  a  rough  and  rugged,  not  to  say  moun- 
.  tainous  character,  with  occasions  valleys  and  plains  of  mod- 
erate extent.^  South  of  this  region  is  spread  out  the  broad 
and  beautiful  plain  of  Damascus,  watered  by  the  Barada,  and 
presenting  to  the  eye  of  the  traveller  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated prospects  of  the  oriental  world.  Its  modern  name 
is  el-Ghutali ;  and  Abulfeda  describes  it  as  the  noblest  of  tlie 
four  Paradises,  "  which  are  the  most  excellent  of  the  beau- 
tiful places  of  the  earth."  ^  The  medium  elevation  of  this 
plain  is  said  to  be  two  thousand  three  hundred  Paris  feet.^ 

11.   WATERS:  RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 

The  coast  of  Syria  has  very  few  bays,  and  no  good  har- 
bors; most  of  the  maritime  towns  having  only  open  road- 
steads. In  the  north,  the  bay  of  Issus,  now  the  gulf  of 
Iskanderun,  forms  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  bay  of  Juneli  or  Kesrawan  north  of  Beirut,  af- 
fords an  exposed  anchorage  for  vessels. 

East  of  Mount  Amanus  th  *  Kara  Su  (in  Arabic  el-As- 
wad)  flows  S.  S.  W.  and  expands  into  the  lake  of  Antioch,  a 
few  miles  distant  from  the  Orontes.  The  Nahr  'Afrin,  a 
longer  stream  enters  the  same  lake  from  the  northeast.  This 
sheet  of  water  is  of  an  oval  form,  nearly  forty  miles  in  cir- 
cuit ;  not  deep,  but  well  siipplied  with  fish  ;  and  is  a  great 
resort  of  water-fowl.   The  level  of  the  lake  is  three  hundred 

1  Biblical  Researches,  HI.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  171.  Pococke,  II.  p.  138  sq. 
Irby  and  Manjrles,  p.  281.    0.  v.  Ricliter,  p.  195  sq. 

2  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  100. 

3  Russeggcr,  I.  p.  415;  comp.  Schubert,  III.  p.  283.  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
pp.  442-468. 


RIVERS.  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


351 


and  sixty-five  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  called  Ak  Denis,  or 
also  el-Yugara.  The  outlet,  likewise  known  as  the  Kara  Su, 
is  on  the  west  side,  and  enters  the  Orontes  three  miles  above 
Antioch.^ 

The  river  of  Aleppo,  el-Kuweik,  is  the  ancient  Chains  of 
Xenophon,  celebrated  for  its  fish  ;  and  having  even  now 
three  varieties  unknown  in  the  rivers  of  Europe,  and  consid- 
ered of  remarkable  delicacy It  rises  near  a  branch  of  the 
Sajur,  a  tributary  of  the  Euphrates  ;  and  has  a  southerly 
course  of  about  sixty  miles.  It  flows  by  Aleppo  as  a  small 
sluggish  stream,  eight  or  ten  yards  wide ;  its  waters  being 
drawn  off  for  irrigation.  Near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Colchis, 
it  turns  east,  and  loses  itself  in  a  marsh  four  miles  from  that 
place  and  some  fifteen  miles  south  of  Aleppo.^ 

The  longest  and  largest  river  of  Syria  is  the  Orontes^  now 
called  el-'Asy,  flowing  towards  the  north  ;  while  all  the  other 
large  streams  have  a  southern  direction.  Its  remotest  source 
is  near  Lebweh,  a  village  ten  or  twelve  miles  north  of  Ba'al- 
bek,  at  the  foot  of  xinti-Lebanon.  A  little  stream  here 
comes  down  from  the  mountain  ;  which  wanders  northward 
through  the  plain  for  twelve  or  fifteen  miles,  and  then  ap- 
proaches the  western  side  of  the  valley,  along  the  low  hills 
which  skirt  the  base  of  Lebanon  near  the  village  el-Hiirmul. 
At  this  place  is  a  large  fountain,  which  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  the  head  of  the  Orontes  ;  the  natives  here,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Litany  and  the  Jordan,  considering  not  the 

1  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  238.  Ainswgrth,  Researches 
in  Assyria,  p.  299.  Cliesney  in  Journal  of  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1838, 
p.  416.   Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  160. 

2  Xenophon,  Anabasis,  1.  4.  9.   W.  B.  Barker  in  Bowring's  Report,  p.  112. 

8  Russell's  Aleppo,  1794,  1,  p.  3  sq.  Pococke,  II.,  p.  151.  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr., 
p.  190.   E.  R.  Beadle  in  Missionary  Herald,  1842,  p.  233. 


352 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYEIA  PROPER. 


most  distant,  but  the  most  copious  fountain  as  the  proper 
source.  A  large  volume  pf  water  "  springs  with  some  vio- 
lence from  a  natural  basin  in  the  rock,  of  a  triangular  form, 
measuring  about  fifty  paces,  and  nearly  concealed  on  each 
side  by  trees  and  bushes."  The  Lebweh  flows  along  the  base 
of  this  triangle,  and  mingles  its  little  current  with  the  stream 
from  the  spring.^  On  the  south  side  of  the  basin,  at  the  top 
of  the  rock,  there  is  an  excavation  of  several  rooms,  said 
to  have  been  the  hermitage  of  Marun,  the  first  Maronite. 
Hence  the  spot  in  Abulfeda's  time  bore  the  name  of  Mu- 
gharat  er-Rahib  (the  Monk's  cave),  and  is  now  known  as 
Deir  Mar  MarOn.2 

The  stream  pursues  a  northeasterly  course  by  Ribleh 
through  the  great  plain  towards  Hums,  receiving  several 
smaller  tributaries.  About  ten  miles  south  of  that  city,  it 
expands  into  a  lake  some  five  miles  long  by  two  broad,  for- 

A 

merly  called  el-Kady^,  and  now  known  as  the  lake  el-'Asy  or 
of  Hums.  The  river  passes  on  the  west  of  Hums,  less  than 
a  mile  distant ;  and  is  there  narrow,  deep,  and  rapid.  Be- 
tween Hums  and  Hamah  it  makes  a  bend  towards  the  right 
around  an  isolated  mountain.  At  Hamah  the  river  runs  in 
a  narrow  valley  lower  than  the  plain  ;  and  here  and  below, 
as  far  as  Shugr,^  the  water  is  raised  by  large  Persian  wheels, 
turned  by  the  force  of  the  current,  for  the  use  of  the  inliab- 
itants  and  for  irriojation.  About  ten  miles  below  Hamah  the 
Orontes  breaks  through  a  range  of  hills  by  a  narrow  chan- 
nel with  precipitous  rocky  banks,  near  the  bridge  and  castle 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  538,  539. 

2  W.  B.  Barker,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1S37,  pp.  99, 
100.  Abulfcda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  150.  Biblical  Researches,  111.,  first  edition,  App. 
p.  144,  145.   See  a  description  of  this  cave  in  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  589. 

3  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  pp.  151,  157. 
*  Maundrell,  p.  5. 


EIYEES,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


353 


Seijar.  Here  are  found  remains  of  antiquity,  which  mark 
tlie  place  as  an  ancient  site,  probably  Larissa.^ 

At  this  point  the  proper  valley  of  the  Orontes,  el-Ghab, 
may  be  said  to  begin.  Many  large  fountains  along  each  side 
of  the  Ghab  send  their  waters  to  augment  the  river  ;  form- 
ing in  several  instances  small  lakes  in  the  bottom  of  the  val- 
ley. One  of  these,  called  et-Takeh,  just  northwest  of  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Apamea,  is  celebrated  for  its  fish.^  The  river 
flows  near  the  west  side  of  the  valley,  where  it  forms  numer- 
ous marshes  ;  in  the  rainy  season  it  overflows  and  connects 
with  the  lake.^  At  Shugr  the  stream  is  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  channels.  It  runs  here  rapidly  over  a  grav- 
elly bottom ;  and  for  a  mile  above  the  bridge  has  less  than 
three  feet  of  water,  while  below  the  bridge  it  is  deep.* 

Just  where  the  Orontes  turns  west  towards  Antioch,  is  the 
Jisr  el-Hadid,  or  Iron  bridge,  so  called  for  centuries,  on  the 
great  road  to  Aleppo.^  Below  Antioch,  through  the  narrow 
portion  of  the  valley,  the  river  roars  over  a  succession  of 
rapids  and  shallows,  which  render  it  unnavigable  even  for 
steam  vessels.^  Where  the  plain  again  opens  towards  the 
sea,  the  stream  is  in  some  places  fordable,  but  is  usually 
crossed  by  a  ferry.  It  is  here  about  eight  rods  in  width,  with 
a  very  rapid  current  and  muddy  water,  exhibiting  a  bluish- 
white  appearance." 

The  direct  course  of  the  Orontes  from  its  source  to  the 
Jisr  el-Hadid,  is  nearest  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  145.    Cellarius,  II.  p.  356. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  137.    Comp.  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  pp.  151, 157. 
5  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  pp.  157,  158.    G.  Robinson,  II.  p.  247. 

*  Monro,  II.,  p.  211.   Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  548  sq. 

5  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  151. 

6  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  226.   Bowring's  Report,  p.  49. 

7  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  235. 

45 

I  ■ 


3o4  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


miles  ;  and  from  thence  to  the  sea,  about  twenty-four  miles. 
The  level  of  the  river  at  the  Iron  bridge  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  adjacent  lake,  or  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
feet  above  the  sea.  This  gives  an  average  fall  of  nearest  fif- 
teen feet  for  every  mile  of  its  lower  southwestern  course, 
where  it  is  known  to  be  most  rapid.  The  source  at  Leb- 
weh  cannot  be  lower  than  Ba'albek  ;  which  is  given  at 
three  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety-six  Paris,  or  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty  English  feet,  above  the 
sea ;  or  three  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet 
above  the  lake  of  Antioch.  This  again  gives  for  the  northern 
course  of  the  river  a  fall  of  more  than  twenty-six  feet  for 
every  mile,  or  nearly  double  the.  rate  below  the  bend.  This 
result  seems  incompatible  with  the  apparently  greater  rapid- 
ity of  the  river  in  its  lower  part ;  and  also  with  the  general 
features  of  the  country,  and  the  marshes  along  the  valley. 
Perhaps  there  may  be  some  error  in  the  barometical  meas- 
urements of  the  Buka'a. 

The  Leontes,  now  called  el-Litany,^  is  the  river  of  the 
Buka'a,  and  gathers  its  waters  from  the  many  fountains  of 
the  valley.  In  journeying  from  Zahlch  at  the  foot  of  Leba- 
non to  Ba'albek,  one  does  not  yet  find  the  Litany  ;  only  a  few 
small  streams,  its  tributaries,  are  crossed  in  the  plain  ;  the 
easternmost  of  which  is  followed  to  its  source  in  a  copious 
fountain  a  few  miles  south  of  Ba'albek.^  This  is  perhaps  the 
remotest  perennial  source.  But  the  district  is  everywhere 
watered  by  rivulets  ;  almost  every  village  has  its  spring,  all 
of  which  flow  into  the  valley,  where  most  of  them  are  lost 
before  reaching  the  Litany,  unless  it  be  in  the  rainy  season. 
Thus  at  Ba'albek  there  is  a  noble  fountain,  the  stream  from 

1  For  the  probable  identity,  see  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  472,473  [III.  p.  410J. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  143. 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


355 


which  would  naturally  form  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Litany ; 
yet  in  summer,  at  least,  it  loses  itself  in  the  plain.  The  case 
is  the  same  with  the  still  remoter  fountain  of  Nahleh,  three 
or  four  miles  northeast  of  Ba'albek.  At  Zahleh,  situated  hi 
the  opening  of  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  a  fine  brook 
called  el-Burdony  issues  from  the  mountain,  and  runs  into 
the  plain  to  join  the  main  stream.  So  too  just  below  on 
the  other  side,  there  comes  in  a  rivulet  from  Anti-Lebanon, 
known  as  el-Kana,  from  the  village  of  that  name.^  But 
the  most  copious  stream  of  all .  comes  from  the  fountains  of 
'Anjar,  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Lebanon,  southeast  of  Zahleh. 
Hence,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Orontes,  this  spot  is  regarded  by 
the  natives  as  the  true  source  of  the  Litany.  There  are 
here  several  springs  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  about  a 
mile  distant  from  the  village.  The  stream  which  issues  from 
them  flows  sluggishly  into  the  plain,  and  is  not  fordable. 
When  Burckhardt  saw  it,  the  volume  of  water  was  triple 
that  of  the  other  branch  of  the  Litany.  In  summer  the 
largest  spring  intermits  its  flow  at  certain  periods  eight  or 
ten  times  in  a  day.  Towards  the  north  along  the  base  of 
the  mountain  are  two  other  large  springs  a  mile  distant  ; 
and  a  third, a  mile  or  two  further  on  ;  all  of  which  send  their 
waters  to  the  river  of  'Anjar,  and  are  reckoned  among  its 
sources.2 

After  the  junction  of  the  streams,  the  Litany  flows  on 
through  the  valley,  which  contracts  towards  the  south,  and 
loses  its  alluvial  character  some  distance  above  the  village 
of  Suhmur  on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream.    Below  this  point 

1  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  pp.  141,  143.  Burckhardt,  Syria, 
pp.  4,  10,  16,  17. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  143.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp. 
9,  10.   E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal. 


356 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


the  channel  of  the  river  becomes  narrow,  and  grows  contin- 
ually deeper  ;  being  apparently  worn  into  the  rock  by  the 
action  of  the  water.  At  Suhmur  the  stream  runs  rapidly 
between  perpendicular  precipices.  About  three  miles  fur- 
ther south,  a  liigh  tract  crosses  from  the  eastern  hill  to  the 
foot  of  Lebanon  ;  through  which  the  river  breaks  its  way  by 
a  similar  narrow  gorge.  The  village  Yiihmur  is  situated 
on  the  top,  just  on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream.  Here  is  the 
most  majestic  part  of  the  wonderful  chasm.  Its  precipices 
cannot  well  be  less  than  a  thousand  feet  in  height ;  higher 
than  at  any  other  point.  At  the  bottom,  like  a  silvery  ribbon, 
the  current  rushes  from  rapid  to  rapid,  foaming  among  the 
rocks,  and  decked  with  the  gay  blossoms  of  the  oleander 
along  its  margin.  Just  north  of  this  spot  there  is  near  the 
bottom  a  natural  bridge  across  the  stream,  called  el-Kuweh. 
It  has  evidently  been  formed  by  the  falling  of  masses  of  rock 
from  above ;  which,  spanning  the  stream,  have  in  time  be- 
come covered  with  earth  and  bushes.  This  bridge  is  crossed 
by  a  bridle-path.i 

South  of  Yuhmur  for  several  miles  the  course  of  the  river 
is  through  the  midst  of  an  undulating  basin ;  but  it  every- 
where preserves  its  precipitous,  though  here  lower  banks. 
There  is  usually  no  depression  of  the  ground  as  one  ap- 
proaches the  river ;  so  that  when  the  chasm  is  not  directly 
in  sight,  the  whole  tract  appears  as  one  continuous  surface. 
Towards  the  south  the  basin  is  terminated  near  the  village 
of  Burghuz  by  a  hill  projecting  from  the  east  towards  the 
bold  side  of  Lebanon,  with  which  it  would  form  a  junction 
but  for  the  Litany.  Here  is  another  majestic  chasm  ;  though 
its  walls  are  less  lofty  than  at  Yuhmur.    Just  below  the 


1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  53,  385-387. 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


357 


bridge  of  Burgliuz  the  river  turns  by  a  sudden  angle  towards 
the  southwest ;  and  continues  to  flow  by  a  tortuous  channel 
between  rocky  precipices  in  that  general  direction,  along  the 
high  southern  end  of  Jebel  Rihan  (Lebanon),  as  far  as  to 
the  bridge  of  Khurdela.  Here  it  again  flows  south  by  the 
great  castle  esh-Shukif ;  below  which  it  turns  due  west,  and 
passes  out  between  precipices  of  great  sublimity  into  the 
more  open  country  around  Tibnin. 

This  deep  rocky  gorge  is  in  fact  a  rent  or  crevice  through 
the  southern  skirts  and  spurs  of  Lebanon.  So  narrow  is 
the  rent,  that  only  here  and  there  is  there  room  for  a  foot- 
path below  along  the  stream  ;  and  the  high  perpendicular 
cliffs  approach  so  near  together  that  in  some  spots,  as  near 
Burghuz,  the  branches  of  trees  from  either  side  meet  and  in- 
terlock. The  lofty  precipice,  on  which  is  situated  the  castle 
esh-Shukif,  is  exceedingly  grand  ;  the  castle  crowns  its  high- 
est pinnacle,  standing  upon  the  very  brink ;  so  that  a  stone 
let  fall  from  its  battlements  would  almost  drop  into  the 
stream  below.^ 

After  turning  west  below  the  castle,  the  Litany  has  a 
course  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles,  and  falls  into  the  sea  a  few 
miles  north  of  Tyre,  under  the  name  el-Kasimiyeh.  The 
stream  in  its  lower  part  is  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  width  and 
of  considerable  depth.  It  flows  to  the  sea  with  many  wind- 
ings, through  a  broad  low  tract  of  meadow-land.^ 

The  length  of  the  Litany  on  a  direct  course,  from  Ba'al- 
bek  to  the  sea,  is  nearest  fifty-five  miles.  From  the  termina- 
tion of  the  alluvial  part  of  the  Buka'a  to  the  point  where 

1  The  foregoing  description  is  drawn  mainly  fi-om  the  Ms.  Journal  of  Rev.  E. 
Smith.  Comp.  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846,  p.  205.  [See  the 
author's  own  view  of  it,  after  having  visited  it  in  1852,  in  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, pp.  385,  387,  421-423,  404.— Ed.] 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  472  sq.  [III.  p.  409  sq.]. 


358 


PHYSICAL  GEOGKAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


the  river  issues  from  its  mountain  gorge  above  Tibnin,  is 
nearest  twenty  miles.  If  for  this  part  of  its  course  we  as- 
sume an  average  fall  of  one  hundred  feet  in  a  mile,  or  two 
thousand  feet  in  all  (which  is  a  very  large  allowance),  there 
yet  remains  of  the  elevation  at  Ba'albek  (three  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  thirty  English  feet),  no  less  than  sev- 
enteen hundred  and  thirty  feet  to  be  distributed  along  the 
rest  of  the  course  ;  namely,  thirty-five  miles.  This  gives 
an  average  fall  of  nearly  fifty  feet  in  a  mile,  in  a  course 
mostly  along  alluvial  valleys.  This  result,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  similar  one  in  the  case  of  the  Orontes,  seems 
to  imply  an  error  in  the  assumed  elevation  of  the  Buka'a,  as 
indicated  by  the  barometer. 

Thus  far  of  the  waters  of  the  great  Syrian  valley  which 
find  their  way,  by  the  Orontes  on  the  north  and  the  Leontes 
on  the  south,  through  the  mountains  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Next,  of  the  shorter  streams  along  the  western  declivity  to- 
wards the  sea. 

North  of  the  Orontes  there  are  no  streams  of  importance 
along  the  coast.  Between  Mount  Casius  and  Lebanon  the 
plain  is  well  watered  by  several  rivers  which  take  their  rise  in 
the  mountains  ;  and  by  numerous  fountains  along  the  coast. 
Ancient  writers  make  no  mention  of  any  of  these  streams, 
except  the  river  Eleutherus ;  which  is  twice  named  in  the 
Apocrypha,  and  often  by  Josephus.^  This  river  was  obvi- 
ously on  the  north  of  Lebanon ;  and  is  loosely  specified, 
along  with  adjacent  towns,  as  the  northern  boundary  of 
Phenicia  towards  Syria.^  According  to  Strabo  and  Pliny  it 
was  near  the  city  Simyra,  now  perhaps  Sumrah  (or  Semar)  ;  ^ 

1  1  Mace.  xi.  7,  xii.  30,   Josephus,  Antt.  15.  4.  1.;  Bel.  Jud.,  1.  18.  5.  etc. 

2  Strabo,  16.  2.  12,  16.   Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  5.  20.    Cellarius,  II.  p.  374. 

3  Cellarius,  H.  p.  374.   Shaw,  Travels,  p.  269. 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


3o9 


and  corresponds  therefore  to  the  present  Xahr  cl-Kebir,  the 
largest  river  of  the  plain. ^  It  rises  in  the  trap  mountains, 
northeast  of  the  castle  el-Husn ;  gathers  the  waters  of  the 
northernmost  parts  of  Lebanon,  and  of  the  southern  end  of 
the  Xusariyeli  mountains  ;  and  passing  down  between  the 
two  (though  nearest  to  Lebanon),  forms  in  the  rainy  season 
a  large  and  swollen  torrent,  which  is  sometimes  impassable 
for  weeks  together.^ 

One  of  the  northernmost  tributaries  of  this  river,  called 
Nahr  cl-'Arus,  takes  its  rise  from  a  copious  intermitting 
fountain  in  the  valley  west  of  the  castle  el-Hiisn,  and  not 
far  from  the  Greek  convent  Mar  Jirjis,  which  is  situated 
half  an  hour  northwest  of  the  castle.  This  fountain,  which 
is  mentioned  by  Burckhardt  as  near  the  convent,  has  re- 
cently been  identified  by  Mr.  Thomson  with  the  famous 
Sabbatical  river  of  JoseiDhus.-^  The  historian  speaks  of  that 
river  as  between  Arka,  which  belonged  to  Agrippa's  kingdom 
of  Chalcis,  and  Raphanea.  The  former  town  still  exists  near 
the  coast  at  the  north  end  of  Lebanon  ;  and  the  site  of  the 
latter,  as  we  shall  elsewhere  see,  is  found  on  tlie  way  from  el- 
Husn  to  Hamah.  Josephus  describes  the  stream  as  flowing 
only  on  the  seventh  day  ;  its  channel  being  dry  during  the 
intervening  six  days.  Pliny,  on  the  other  hand,  narrates, 
that  it  runs  during  six  days,  and  is  dry  on  the  seventh."* 
These  are  doubtless  merely  different  forms  of  a  current  pop- 
ular report.    At  the  present  time  the  water  ordinarily  flows 

1  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  576, 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  101.  Muuiidrell,  p.  32.  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
pp.  558 -SCO,  .575,  570,  582. 

3"W.  M.  Thomson  in.  Silliman's  Journal  of  Science,  Nov.  1846,  p.  305  sq. 
Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  160.  Josephus,  Bel.  Jud.,  7.  5.  L  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, pp.  572,  574. 

4  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  31.  2. 


360 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


every  third  day  ;  tliougli,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the 
monks  of  the  adjacent  convent,  the  interval  varies  with  the 
alternations  of  the  wet  and  dry  seasons.  Yet  the  inhabitants 
of  the  neighboring  districts  still  affirm,  that  it  runs  only  on 
the  seventh  day,  and  call  it  Nahr  Sebty,  or  Seventh-day 
river.  Being,  however,  Muslims,  they  connect  the  supposed 
flow  with  Friday,  the  Muhammedan  Sabbath. 

Of  the  streams  which  descend  from  Lebanon  directly  to 
the  sea,  the  ancient  names  of  only  five  have  been  preserved ; 
and  these  are  all  situated  between  Jebeil  (Byblus)  and  Sidon. 

The  Adonis,  now  called  Nahr  Ibrahim,  a  few  miles  south 
of  Jebeil,  is  a  stream  of  considerable  size.^  It  is  crossed  by 
a  very  high  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  which  appears  to  have 
stood  for  ages.  The  ancient  name  was  derived  from  the 
fable  of  Adonis ;  who  was  said  to  have  been  killed  by  a 
wild  boar  in  the  adjacent  mountain,  and  his  blood  mingled 
with  the  stream.  His  death  was  annually  commemorated 
in  Byblus,  in  connection  with  the  temple  of  Yeniis  ;  at  which 
time  the  river  was  believed  to  become  of  a  bloody  color. 
Something  like  this  is  occasionally  true  at  the  present  day  ; 
as  seen  by  Maundrell  ;  ^  the  water  after  violent  rains  as- 
sumes a  reddish  hue,  and  discolors  the  sea  to  a  considerable 
distance.  This  is  occasioned  by  a  species  of  minium,  or 
red  earth,  washed  into  the  river.  Such  is  the  solution  given 
by  Maundrell ;  and  Lucian  relates  that  an  inhabitant  of 
Byblus  explained  it  "to  liim  in  the  same  way.^ 

The  ancient  Lycus  is  now  Nahr  el-Kelb,  or  Dog  river,  a 
large  and  rapid  stream,  having  its  sources  around  Jebel 
Sunnin,  and  entering  tlie  sea  between  steep  and  lofty  preci- 

1  Cellarius,  II.  p.  377.  Maundrell,  p.  45.  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  601, 
606,  609. 

2  Maundrell,  p.  46.  8  Lucian,  de  Syria.  Dea,  §  6,  8. 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


3G1 


pices,  seven  or  eiglit  miles  northeast  of  Beirut.^  The  scenery 
of  this  mountain  gorge  is  romantic  and  imposing.  The 
mountains  extend  out  quite  to  the  sea  ;  so  that  on  the  north 
there  is  only  a  narrow  rocky  passage  along  the  shore  ;  while 
on  the  south  the  rampart  juts  out  still  further,  and  an  an- 
cient artificial  road  six  feet  in  breadth  is  hewn  in  the  rock 
sometimes  fifty  feet  above  the  water,  for  the  distance  of  a 
mile.  A  Latin  inscription  records  this  as  the  work  of  one 
of  the  emperors  Antoninus,  probably  Caracalla.  Other  in- 
scriptions, now  illegible,  and  sculptures  mark  the  progress  of 
Assyrian  and  perhaps  Egyptian  conquerors.  Higher  up  in 
the  mountain  the  region  becomes  still  more  wild  and  roman- 
tic ;  especially  around  the  extensive  caverns  through  which 
the  river  flows,  situated  two  hours  above  its  mouth. 

The  present  river  of  Beirut,  which  descends  upon  the  plain 
and  enters  the  sea  on  the  north  side  of  the  promontory,  is 
the  Magoras  of  the  ancients.^ 

In  the  Nahr  ed-Damur,  south  of  Beirut,  we  have  the  river 
Tamyras  or  Damouras  of  the  ancients."  Its  sources  are  in 
the  mountain,  in  several  valleys,  near  the  road  from  Beiriit 
to  Damascus.  In  summer  it  is  a  moderate  stream,  but  in 
winter  it  often  swells  so  suddenly  and  powerfully  as  to  be- 
come impassable  ;  and  travellers  are  occasionally  swept  away 
in  attempting  to  ford  it.  A  bridge  has  often  been  erected 
over  it  in  the  plains  ;  but  has  never  yet  been  able  long  to 
withstand  the  fury  of  the  wintry  torrent* 

1  Cellarius,  II.  p.  377.  Maundrell,  p.  45  sq.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  189  sq. 
W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  29  sq.  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
pp.  12,  13,  G19. 

2  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  5.  17.  Pocockc,  II.  pp.  90,  91.  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
pp.  12,  14,  15. 

3  Strabo,  16.  2.  Polyb.  5.  68.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  488  [III.  p.  433], 
Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  34. 

46 


362 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


The  Awaly,  just  north  of  Sidon,  is  the  ancient  Bosh'enus, 
which  gave  and  still  gives  fertility  and  beauty  to  the  envi- 
rons of  that  city.i  Its  source  is  high  up  in  Lebanon,  north 
of  Baruk  ;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  it  flows  first  south-south- 
west, and  then  west  to  the  sea  by  an  alluvial  valley,  cleaving 
the  mountains  to  their  base.  At  its  angle  near  Jezzin,  a 
stream  enters  it  from  the  north,  on  which  is  a  beautiful  cas- 
cade two  hundred  feet  high.^  Where  the  river  issues  from 
the  mountains,  its  waters  are  taken  out  by  aqueducts  to'  sup- 
ply the  city  of  Sidon  and  to  irrigate  the  surrounding  region. 
Yet  it  flows  on,  a  fine  broad  stream,  to  the  sea. 

South  of  Sidon  there  is  no  river  of  importance  except  the 
Leontes.  All  those  thus  far  mentioned  are  within  the  long 
and  narrow  territory  encircled  by  the  latter  and  the  Orontes. 

Along  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  mountains  which  skirt 
the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  and  also  along  the  whole  northern 
part  of  Anti-Lebanon  towards  the  cast,  the  only  waters  are 
occasional  fountains,  whose  rivulets  are  quickly  lost  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  sources.  In  the  district  of  Damascus,  we 
have  an  early  notice  of  two  streams  :  "  Are  not  Amana  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of 
Israel  ?  "  ^  These  of  course  must  be  streams  having  their 
sources  in  or  near  Anti-Lebanon  or  Hermon,  and  flowing 
eastward  through  the  plain  of  Damascus. 

One  of  these  is  undoubtedly  the  Barada,  the  ChrysorrlwcB 
of  the  Greeks.^    It  is  the  largest  and  most  important  stream 

1  Dionysius,  Perigetes,  905.  Reland,  Palaestina,  p.  437.  Biblical  Researches, 
II.  pp.  4a5,  480  [III.  pp.  428,  429].   Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  30,  37. 

2  E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal. 

3  2  Kings  V.  12.  The  form  Amana  stands  in  the  margin  of  the  English  Bible, 
and  is  better  supported  than  the  reading  Ahana.  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p. 
447  sq. 

4  Cellarius,  II.  p.  372.  Later  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  446-449. 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


363 


on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  mountains,  though  in  itself 
of  moderate  size ;  and  flows  in  a  southeasterly  direction.  Its 
remotest  sources  are  found  in  several  rivulets  which  water 
the  plain  of  Zebedany  near  the  top  of  Anti-Lebanon ;  one  of 
these  coming  from  the  northern  part  of  that  plain.  The 
united  stream  passes  out  of  the  plain  by  a  deep  chasm 
through  the  parallel  ridge  on  the  east.    This  ridge,  which  is 
hundreds  of  feet  high  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
the  stream,  is  cleft  so  as  to  present  tw^o  perpendicular  faces 
of  rock,  with  a  level  pass  of  only  a  few  yards  between  them. 
Just  at  its  eastern  mouth  is  a  town,  Suk  el-Barada,  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Abila.    The  valley  of  the  Barada  now  passes 
through  another  plain  or  offset,  eight  or  ten  miles  broad,  to 
a  second  similar  gap  through  the  next  ridge,  near  the  village 
of  Fijeh,  on  its  left  bank.^  The  river  is  continually  enlarged 
by  various  fountains  and  streams ;  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  i^  the  fountain  el-Fijeh,  bursting  forth  at  once,  just 
back  of  that  village,  as  a  copious  stream  of  the  purest  trans- 
parent water,  which  unites  with  the  Barada  after  a  course 
of  so^ne  five  and  twenty  rods.    The  water  of  the  latter  is 
whitisli  and  turbid ;  and  its  stream  is  not  more  than  half  the 
size  of  that  from  Fijeh.^   Hence,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Oron- 
tes  and  Litany,  the  latter  is  often  regarded  as  the  source  of 
the  Barada.^    An  aqueduct,  the  remains  of  which  still  exist, 
once  conveyed  its  waters  to  Damascus. 

Below  the  second  gap  the  narrow  valley  of  the  river  crosses 
a  desert  tract  for  six  or  eight  miles,  to  the  third  and  last  ridge, 
through  which  it  breaks  by  a  somewhat  wider  pass,  about 
two  miles  distant  from  Damascus.*  Above  the  gap,  near  the 

1  E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal.  2  0.  v.  Richter,  p.  157. 

3  So  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  pp.  15,  174. 

<  E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal.   Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  146. 


364 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


village  of  Diimmar,  the  river,  which  hitherto  flows  in  a  chan- 
nel eight  or  ten  yards  wide,  and  with  a  current  hardly  knee 
deep,i  divides  itself  into  five  arms  ;  not  at  once,  but  one  after 
another.  Of  these,  one  occupies  the  channel  along  the  val- 
ley ;  while  the  rest  are  conducted  at  different  heights  along 
the  two  declivities.  Another  arm  goes  off  to  the  right  above 
Dummar,  and  is  carried  to  the  village  of  Mezzeh  ;  and  one 
of  the  five  again  divides  before  reaching  Damascus.^  Thus 
the  waters  of  the  Barada  flow  through  the  city  and  gardens 
at  least  seven  streams  ;  and  being  drawn  off  by  many  smaller 
channels  for  irrigation,  they  are  mostly  absorbed  in  the  plain. 
What  remains  of  the  streams  is  again  united  southeast  of  the 
city ;  and  after  a  course  of  seven  or  eight  miles  enters  the 
lake  or  marsh  of  Damascus,  called  also  el-Heijany.^  This 
lake  has  no  outlet ;  and  receives  all  the  rivers  that  descend 
from  Anti-Lebanon  and  Hermon  into  the  plain.  Of  course 
it  enlarges  in  winter  and  decreases  in  summer.  It"  is  sur- 
rounded by  tracts  of  reeds  and  canes.  The  meadow-like 
tract  adjacent  to  it  on  the  west  is  called  el-Merj  ;  whence  some- 
times the  whole  lake  takes  the  name  of  Bahr  el-Merj.^  In  the 
Barada  we  very  probably  recognize  the  Amana  (or  Ahand) 
of  Scripture.  The  more  important  river  would  naturally  be 
named  first.  A  part  of  Anti-Lebanon  was  likewise  called 
Amana  ;  and  this  in  all  probability  would  be  the  tract  around 
the  sources  of  the  river  of  the  same  name. 

More  difficult  is  it  to  identify  the  Pharpar.  Some  have 
regarded  it  as  the  short  stream  at  Fijeli ;  others,  as  one  of 

1  Paxton's  Letters,  p.  66.  2  q.  v.  Richter,  p.  154  sq. 

3  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.,  p.  148.  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p. 
156.   Addison,  Damascus,  etc.,  H.  p.  118. 

4  See  on  Damascus,  its  rivers  and  lakes,  the  author's  Later  Biblical  Researches, 
pp.  442-452,  and  the  later  (1855)  work  on  Damascus  and  Haman  by  J.  L.  Porter. 


MYERS,  LAKES,  FOUNTAINS. 


3G5 


the  arms  of  the  Barada  in  the  plain.  Neither  of  these  con- 
jectures has  any  plausibility.  The  plain  of  Damascus  is 
watered  by  many  streamlets.  One  of  these,  called  el-Berdeh, 
has  its  source  in  Jebel  esk-Sheikh,  back  of  Katana,  and  runs 
into  the  Merj.^  Another  larger  stream  is  the  A'waj  ;  which 
likewise  takes  its  rise  from  Jebel  esk-Sheikh  in  the  direction 
of  Hasbeiya ;  flows  first  southeasterly  to  Sa'sa',  and  then 
northeasterly  to  the  Ghutah  or  plain  of  Damascus  ;  and  falls 
at  last  into  the  lake.  Its  upper  part  is  called  also  Nahr  es- 
Seibarany.  At  Sa'sa'  it  is  described  as  a  rapid  and  pretty 
stream. 2  Further  down,  it  flows  by  el-Kesweh  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Ghutah  ;  and  is  there  spoken  of  by  Abulfeda.^ 
Next  to  the  Barada  this  is  the  most  important  stream  in  all 
the  region  around  Damascus  ;  and  is  therefore  most  probably 
to  be  regarded  as  the  Pharpar  of  Scripture.* 

The  large  fountains  have  been  mentioned,  which  every- 
where burst  forth,  along  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  at  the  base 
of  the  mountains  on  each  side ;  as  also  those  in  the  Buka'a, 
and  along  the  coast  north  of  Lebanon.  A  very  remarkable 
fountain,  or  rather  cluster  of  fountains,  exists  in  the  plain 
just  south  of  Tyre ;  from  which  that  city  was  anciently  sup- 
plied with  water  by  an  aqueduct,  the  greater  part  of  which 
is  yet  standing.  The  place  is  now  called  Kas  el-'Ain,  about 
two  and  a  half  miles  from  Tyre,  and  half  a  mile  from  the 
sea.^  The  water  is  clear  and  fine,  though  it  holds  much  lime 
in  solution.  It  gushes  up  in  the  several  sources  with  great 
force  and  in  very  large  quantities.    In  order  to  raise  the 

1  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  47,  50,  53.    See  last  Note. 

2  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  312.    Schubert,  III.  p.  27.   Monro,  II.  p.  54. 

3  Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  97.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  53.  0.  v.  Richter,  p.  162. 
*  Later  Biblical  Researches,  p.  447.   See  Note  i. 

«  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  457-459  [III.  p.  386  sq.]. 


366  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 

fountain  to  a  head  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  water  by  aque- 
ducts, the  ancients  built  around  them  elevated  reservoirs, 
with  walls  of  stone  immensely  thick  and  fifteen  or  twenty- 
feet  high,  with  a  broad  border  or  wall  around  the  basin,  and 
steps  to  ascend  to  the  top.  The  principal  source  is  that  on 
the  west.  It  has  an  octagonal  reservoir,  with  a  very  wide 
border,  and  a  broad  way  leading  to  the  top;  so  that  one 
might  ride  up  and  around  it.  The  water  is  here  in  constant 
ebullition  ;  and  is  now  used  to  turn  a  mill.  Anciently  the 
water  from  the  different  fountains  was  collected  by  several 
smaller  aqueducts  into  a  large  one  of  strong  and  excellent 
masonry,  with  round  arches,  apparently  of  the  Roman  age. 
Some  of  the  arches  are  filled  up  with  stalactites  of  limestone . 
formed  by  the  trickling  of  the  water.  In  a  far  earlier  age 
we  know  that  Tyre  was  already  supplied  with  water  by  aque- 
ducts.i 

The  large  fountain  near  Hasbeiya  in  Wady  et-Teim  un- 
der Mount  Hermon,  the  remotest  perennial  source  of  the 
Jordan,  will  be  noticed  in  describing  that  river. 

HI.  CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  a  country  is  modified  by  the  character  of 
its  surface  ;  and  depends  greatly  on  the  height  of  its  moun- 
tains, the  extent  of  its  plains,  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  its 
waters,  and  other  like  circumstances.  Syria  has  its  lofty 
summits,  from  the  sheltered  ravines  around  which  snow 
never  wholly  disappears,  and  likewise  its  broad  and  some- 
times arid  plains,  where  the  heat  of  summer  is  intense.  Yet 
in  general  the  climate  is  temperate  and  not  unhealthy.  The 

1  Menander  in  Jos.  Antiq.,9.  14.  2. 


CLIMATE. 


3G7 


three  narrow  longitudinal  strips,  of  different  elevation,  into 
which  the  country  is  divided,  have  their  natural  effect  upon 
the  temperature  ;  first,  the  low  plain  along  the  coast ;  then 
the  high  mountain  ranges ;  and  beyond  these,  the  interior 
elevated  plains,  which  are  shut  out  in  a  great  measure  by  the 
mountains  from  the  influence  of  the  sea. 

The  highest  and  lowest  degrees  of  the  thermometer  noted 
in  the  English  Expedition  to  the  Euphrates  in  1885  and  1836 
were  115°  F.  in  the  shade  in  summer,  and  12°  F.  in  winter. ^ 
But  the  places  where  the  observations  were  made,  are  not 
specified  ;  and  these  extremes  are  apparently  unusual.  At 
Beirut  on  the  coast  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  higher 
than  95°  in  summer,  or  sinks  lower  than  50°  in  winter.  Yet 
in  some  winters  it  has  fallen  as  low  as  35° ;  and  in  1825 
there  was  snow,  hail,  and  even  ice,  in  March ;  but  the  latter 
was  so  unusual,  that  many  persons  of  twenty-five  and  thirty 
years  of  age,  had  never  before  seen  it.^  The  highest  monthly 
average  in  summer  is  about  85°  ;  the  lowest  in  winter  about 
57°. 

On  Mount  Lebanon,  at  Bhamdun  near  the  Damascus  road, 
about  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  the  highest  tempera- 
ture during  the  summer  of  1813  was  81°  ;  the  monthly  aver- 
age of  August  for  two  years  was  70°  ;  and  the  general  av- 
erage was  twelve  degrees  lower  than  at  Beirut.  At  Aithath 
south-southeast  of  Beirut,  with  an  elevation  of  about  three 
thousand  feet,  the  lowest  point  observed  during  the  winter 
of  1842-43  was  40° ;  the  lowest  monthly  average  was  50°, 
in  January  ;  and  the  general  average  was  about  seven  de- 
grees lower  than  at  Beirut.^    In  the  interior,  at  Aleppo, 

1  Ainsworth's  Researches  in  Assyria,  etc.  p.  31.  ^ 

2  W.  Goodell,  in  Missionary  Herald,  1825,  p.  346. 

3  Dr.  De  Forest  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1844,  p.  221. 


368 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYPJA  PROPER. 


during  the  years  1752  and  1753,  the  mercury  rose  to  95**  in 
summer,  and  fell  as  low  as  36°  in  winter.^  But  the  latter 
point  can  hardly  be  accurate ;  since  snow  and  ice  are  not 
unusual  in  that  city.  Aleppo  lies  about  twelve  hundred  feet 
above  the  the  sea ;  and  its  climate  is  more  severe  than  that 
of  Beirut.  Damascus  lies  still  higher  ;  and  the  average 
temperature  is  probably  two  or  three  degrees  less  than  at 
Aleppo.    But  there  is  no  account  of  any  observations. 

The  winter  and  summer  in  Syria,  as  well  as  in  Palestine, 
are  distinguished  as  the  rainy  and  the  dry  seasons  ;  the  for- 
mer being  marked  by  much  rain,  and  the  latter  by  none  at 
all.  The  rains  in  autumn  commence  somewhat  earlier  than 
at  Jerusalem  ;  and  continue  later  in  the  spring.  Slight  show- 
ers occur  soon  after  the  autumnal  equinox  ;  but  the  regular 
rains  do  not  begin  to  fall  until  after  the  middle  of  October, 
and  then  for  a  time  at  intervals,  often  with  heavy  thunder. 
December  and  January  are  usually  months  of  heavy  rains, 
with  not  less  than  twelve  to  fifteen  rainy  days  in  each.  Dur- 
ing the  next  three  months  the  rains  gradually  become  less 
heavy  and  frequent.  In  March,  and  especially  April,  the 
weather  is  variable,  witli  showers  and  much  sunshine.  Show- 
ers continue  to  fall  in  May,  and  a  few  even  in  the  first  days  of 
June ;  but  during  the  summer  months  and  until  October,  with 
the  exceptions  specified,  rain  is  unknown.^  This  holds  true  of 
Aleppo  and  the  interior,  as  well  as  of  the  coast  and  moun- 
tains. Yet  in  the  night  of  July  1,  1743,  there  were  thunder 
showers  at  Aleppo  ;  an  extraordinary  phenomenon  at  that 
season  of  the  year.^ 

During  the  intervals  of  the  earlier  rains  in  October  and 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  App.,  p.  9. 

2  Dr.  Dc  Forest,  in  Bibllotheca  Sacra,  1844,  p.  221. 

3  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  289.    Corap.  Prov.  xxvi.  1;  1  Sam.  xil.  17. 


CLIMATE. 


November,  the  liusbandmau  ploughs  his  fields  and  sows 
his  seed.  The  trees  retain  their  foliage  until  December  ; 
and  the  cold  does  not  usually  set  in  until  the  middle  of 
that  month.  Even  delicate  Europeans  do  not  have  fires 
at  Aleppo  earlier. 1  The  cold  colitinues  for  six  or  seven 
weeks.  On  the  coast,  frost  and  snow  are  very  rare.  On  the 
mountains  snow  falls  in  winter  when  it  rains  below,  and  lies 
on  the  highest  parts  in  large  masses,  so  as  to  block  up  the 
passes  of  Lebanon.  In  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  mountains 
it  commonly  lies  only  for  a  short  time.  It  is  mentioned  as 
being  worthy  of  remark,  that  at  Bhamdun,  in  the  winter  of 
1844-5,  one  fall  of  snow  lay  for  a  month  on  a  part  of  the 
vineyards,  before  it  entirely  melted  away.^  At  Aleppo  few 
winters  pass  without  frost,  but  many  without  snow  ;  and 
very  rarely  does  the  snow  lie  more  than  one  day.  Hail  is 
not  unfrequent  in  the  spring  ;  and  the  hailstones  are  some- 
times enormous.  During  thirteen  years  it  happened  only 
three  times  at  Aleppo,  that  there  was  ice  of  sufficient  strength 
to  bear  the  weight  of  a  man ;  and  then  only  in  shady  situa- 
tions.^ Whenever  the  atmosphere  is  clear  and  calm,  the 
sun  has  everywhere  so  much  power,  that  the  weather  is 
always  mild  and  even  warm. 

Spring  may  be  said  to  commence  in  February.  At  Aleppo 
the  almond  tree,  the  peach,  and  the  plum  put  forth  their 
blossoms  after  the  middle  of  that  month.  The  trees  resume 
their  foliage  early  in  March,  and  the  trees  become  covered 
with  verdure.  The  later  showers  of  April  and  May  seem  to 
bring  forward  the  vegetation  and  ripen  the  crops.  The  coun- 
try is  in  full  verdure  and  beauty  towards  the  end  of  April. 
Early  in  May  the  grain  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  the  harvest 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  11.  p.  69.  2  £.  Smith  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846,  p.  385. 
3  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  70. 

47 


370  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYEIA  PROPER, 


follows  ill  two  or  three  weeks  ;  and  the  fields  assume  a  dry 
and  parched  aspect.  During  the  summer  months,  the  sky 
is  almost  constantly  serene,  except  that  sometimes  light 
fleecy  clouds  slightly  intercept  the  sun's  rays  ;  or  also  there 
is  occasionally  a  partial  haze  in  the  atmosphere.  The  country 
is  dried  up  ;  and  the  only  verdure  visible  is  that  of  the  trees 
and  vines  and  the  few  summer  crops.^  How  different  from 
the  green  meadows  and  pastures  of  the  Occident ! 

The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  western  quarter.  At 
Beirut  in  summer  the  wind  blows  during  the  day  five  sixths 
of  the  time  from  the  west  and  southwest.  These  winds 
commonly  subside  soon  after  sunset ;  and  a  land  breeze 
sets  in,  which,  blowing  down  tlie  mountains,  renders  the 
nights  comparatively  comfortable.  Sometime  after  sunrise 
the  breeze  returns  again  fresh  from  the  sea.  In  winter  the 
winds  are  frequently  between  northeast  and  northwest.  On 
the  mountains  they  appear  to  be  in  general  the  same  as  on 
the  coast.^  At  Aleppo  westerly  breezes  prevail  during  the 
summer  in  the  daytime,  and  die  away  about  midnight. 
They  serve  to  cool  and  refresh  the  air  ;  which  in  their  ab- 
sence or  during  light  breezes  from  other  quarters,  is  disagree- 
ably sultry.  Brisk  winds  from  the  east  and  southeast  at 
Aleppo  are  dry  and  hot ;  they  parch  the  eyes,  lips,  and  nos- 
trils ;  and  produce  great  lassitude  and  a  sense  of  oppression 
at  the  breast.  This  is  the  true  east  wind  of  Scripture  ;  ^ 
the  Shurkiyeh  (eastern)  of  the  Arabs ;  under  which  name  it 
has  become  known  to  Europeans  as  the  Sirocco.'^  On  the 
coast  and  in  Palestine  the  Sirocco  comes  more  usually  from 
the  southern  quarter.    At  Aleppo  in  winter  and  spring  the 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  64  sq. 

«  Dr.  De  Forest  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1844,  p.  222. 

*  Job  xxvii.  21 ;  Ezra  xvii.  10,  xix.  12.  *  See  above,  pp.  305-307, 


CLIMATE. 


371 


east  winds  are  the  coldest  ;  and  the  more  usual  wmds  in 
those  seasons  are  between  that  point  and  the  northeast.^  At 
Damascus  also  the  prevailing  winds  in  summer  are  under- 
derstood  to  be  from  the  west  or  southwest ;  this  is  the  case 
likewise  in  the  more  eastern  deserts.  In  these  regions  too  the 
Sirocco  (or  Simoom)  comes  from  the  west.^ 

The  climate  of  Syria  is  in  general  not  unhealthy  ;  though 
this  remark  applies  less  to  those  parts  of  the  coast  which  are 
confined  to  a  narrow  strip,  than  elsewhere.  Iskanderun  is 
rendered  decidedly  unhealthy  in  summer  by  the  adjacent 
marshes.^  In  Beirut,  which  lies  directly  under  Lebanon, 
where  the  beams  of  the  sun  ai-e  reflected  down  from  the 
whitish  masses  of  the  mountains,  and  the  air  is  moistened  by 
the  breezes  from  the  sea,  intermittent  or  bilious  fevers  not 
unfrequently  prevail  in  August  and  September.  For  this 
reason  the  foreign  residents  usually  spend  these  months  in 
the  adjacent  mountains  ;  where  there  is  always  a  pure  and 
healthy  atmosphere.  In  the  interior,  as  at  Aleppo,  the  air 
is  pure  and  penetrating  ;  though  trying  to  consumptive 
persons.  Indeed,  so  constant  and  salubrious  is  the  summer 
season  that  the  inhabitants  are  accustomed  to  sleep  for  months 
in  the  open  air  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses  without 
detriment.  Yet  fevers  and  dysenteries  are  not  uncommon.^ 
The  air  of  Damascus  is  described  as  excellent;^  the  abun- 
dance of  water  and  the  many  gardens  surround  the  city  with 
verdure  and  freshness.  Yet  late  in  the  summer  and  in  au- 
tumn it  is  subject  to  violent  intermittent  fevers,  engendered, 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  pp.  66,  70. 

2  Burckliardt,  Notes  on  the  Bedawins,  I.  p.  225. 

3  Niebhur,  Reisebeschr,  III.  p.  18. 

<  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  pp.  63,  64;  II.  p.  298  sq.  E.  R.  Beadle  in  Missionary  Her- 
ald, 1842,  p.  235. 
«  Brown's  Travels,  p.  396. 


372 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


doubtless,  in  part  by  the  marshes  of  the  adjacent  lake.^  The 
climate  of  Hums  and  the  region  round  about  is  spoken  of  as 
perhaps  the  finest  in  Syria,  east  of  the  mountains.^ 

Heavy  thunder  and  lightning,  as  we  have  seen,  are  not 
unfrequent ;  but  it  rarely  happens  that  damage  is  done  by 
the  electric  fluid.  In  summer  and  autumn  vivid  flashes  of 
lightning  without  thunder  often  illuminate  the  heavens  at 
night. ^ 

rV.   GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES:  MINERALS,  SOIL. 

The  Syrian  mountains  consist  mainly  of  limestone ;  as  has 
been  already  shown.  In  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  the 
Jura  limestone  predominates  ;  the  mountains  of  the  Nusai- 
riyeh  verge  into  chalk  ;  around  Mount  Casius,  are  talc,  ser- 
pentine, and  sandstone ; .  while  the  ridges  of  Amanus  are 
composed  of  limestone,  serpentine,  and  talc  schist.*  The 
whole  interior  region,  including  the  desert,  rests  on  lime- 
stone, which  often  appears  upon  the  surface ;  as  in  the  vast 
quarries  of  Aleppo,  and  the  neighboring  naked  hills.^ 

Sandstone  and  likewise  greenstone  are  found  in  various 
places  in  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.^  Indeed,  the  most 
important  variation  from  the  general  limestone  formation 
throughout  Syria,  consists  in  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
greenstone,  basalt,  and  other  volcanic  products,  connecting 
this  whole  region  with  the  volcanic  tracts  on  the  east  and 

1  Addison,  Damascus,  etc.,  II.  pp.  118,  389. 

2  J.  Kinr^  in  Missionary  Herald,  1825,  p.  371. 

3  Compare  these  remarks  on  the  climate  of  Syria  with  the  author's  minute  re- 
port on  that  of  Palestine,  pp.  288-310. 

■*  Sec  p.  [II.]  [17.  i.]  Ainsworth,  Researches  in  Assyria,  p.  313  sq.  RuSsegger, 
I.  pp.  429  .«q.,  441  sq. 

«  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  pp.  3,  52.   0.  v.  Richter,  p.  238,  244. 

6  Russegger,  1.  pp.  780,  78G  sq.,  795  sq.  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald, 
1S41,  p.  3G5. 


MINERALS,  SOIL. 


373 


west  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  Throughout  Lebanon,  from 
the  hills  of  Galilee  northward,  lava  and  greenstone  are  said 
to  be  protruded  in  many  places.  Especially  is  this  tlie  case 
around  the  villages  'Areeya,  Shuwit,  and  'Abadiyeh,  on  the 
mountain  east  of  Beirut.  The  whole  of  Jebel  'Akkar  is 
described  as  volcanic ;  as  also  all  the  eastern  part  of  the  ad- 
jacent northern  plain  ;  and  the  same  feature  continues  north 
through  the  mountains  of  the  Niisairiyeh  as  far  even  as  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Antiocli.  Between  Hamah  and  the  for- 
tress el-Husn  the  traveller  passes  for  nearly  fifty  miles  over  a 
volcanic  region.  As  he  descends  into  the.  plain  around  the 
latter,  the  rocks  are  greatly  variegated ;  and  there  are  large 
quantities  of  globular  basalt.  Between  Hums  and  el-Husn 
the  same  ridges  are  described  as  abounding  in  the  black 
porous  stone  "  which  occurs  around  the  lake  of  Tiberias. ^ 
On  the  coast  south  of  Banias,  the  ancient  Batanaea,  a  vol- 
canic tract  of  ten  or  twelve  miles  in  width  runs  out  to  the 
sea,  full  of  liills  of  lava  and  otlier  volcanic  products.^ 

Between  Lebanon  and  Hermon  the  lower  part  of  Wady  et- 
Teim  is  strewed  with  lava ;  and  the  bitumen  pits  of  Has- 
beiya  point  to  a  volcanic  origin.^  East  of  the  mountains  the 
basalt  of  Hauran  extends  northward  to  the  borders  of  the 
Ghutah  of  Damascus.  South  of  Sa'sa'  on  the  A'waj  are 
tracts  of  basalt ;  and  further  towards  the  northeast  that  river 
passes  for  some  distance  through  a  rocky  desert  region,  flow- 
ing in  a  deep  channel  of  the  Hauran  black  stone.  The  same 

1  W.  M,  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  365.  Buckingham,  Arab 
Tr.,  pp.  502,  503.  [See  the  author's  own  observations  on  this  region  in  Later 
Biblical  Researches,  pp.  551-554,  558,  562-5(37.  —  Ed.] 

2  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  100.  See  also  Later  Biblical 
Researches,  pp.  397,  408  sq. 

3  W.  M.  Thomson,  Ibid.,  p.  110.   See  also  Lat.  Bib.  Researches,  pp.  397,  408. 

4  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846,  pp.  186,  187. 


374 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  0^"  THE  SYRIAN  COAST. 


tract  continues  on  the  right  of  the  stream  ;  and  furnishes 
millstones  of  the  same  character  for  the  supply  of  Damas- 
cus.i  Volcanic  masses  are  likewise  frequent  in  the  region 
of  Aleppo.2 

Connected,  doubtless,  with  these  volcanic  features,  is  that 
terrible  scourge  of  Syria  and  the  east,  its  earthquakes.  As 
far  as  history  reaches  back  they  have  been  frequent ;  and 
often  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  have  Aleppo  and 
Antioch  and  the  towns  along  the  coast  been  desolated  by 
their  ravages.  Scarcely  a  year  passes  in  which  shocks  are 
not  felt.  In  1759  the  region  of  Lebanon  was  severely  vis- 
ited. In  1822  an  earthquake  destroyed  a  great  part  of 
Aleppo,  and  buried  multitudes  in  the  ruins.  In  1841,  be- 
tween the  first  of  May  and  the  end  of  December,  no  less 
than  five  sligliter  shocks  were  felt  in  the  same  city.^  The 
great  earthquake  of  Jan.  1, 1837,  which  destroyed  Safed  and 
Tiberias,  did  not  spread  its  desolations  into  Syria. 

In  mineral  productions  Syria  as  yet  appears  not  to  be  rich. 
The  meagre  mines  of  iron  and  coal  in  Lebanon  have  been 
mentioned.*  Near  Hasbeiya  under  Mount  Hermon  are  pits 
or  ratlier  mines  of  bitumen.  They  arc  on  the  eastern  decliv- 
ity of  the  hill  or  low  ridge,  which  lies  on  the  west  of  the 
stream,  about  a  mile  below  the  bridge.  The  surface  is  a 
chalky  rock  with  nodules  of  flint ;  and  nothing  indicates  the 
presence  of  such  a  mineral.  The  bitumen  lies  in  a  stratum 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface.  This  stratum  is  said  to  be 
eighty  feet  thick  ;  and  is  reached  by  pits  or  shafts  from  six  to 

1  Schubert,  III.  pp.  270,  271,    Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  284,  312. 

2  Russegger,  I.  p.  453  sq.   W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  241. 

3  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  72.  Volney,  Voyage  en  Syrie,  I.  p.  27G.  E.  R.  Beadle 
in  Missionary  Herald,  1842,  p.  233  sq. 

<  See  above,  p.  342. 


MINERALS,  SOIL. 


375 


twelve  feet  in  diameter,  through  which  it  is  raised  by  a  wind- 
lass. It  i^  wrought  like  coal ;  and  in  hewing  out  the  bitu- 
men the  workmen  leave  columns  at  intervals  to  support  the 
rock  above.  It  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and  the  supply  is  sup- 
posed to  be  inexhaustible  ;  but  being  the  property  of  the  gov- 
ernment, the  mines  are  badly  managed  and  seldom  wrought. 
The  mineral  is  chiefly  used  in  the  country  as  an  antidote 
to  insects  that  destroy  the  grapes ;  being  mixed  with  oil  and 
daubed  upon  the  vine  near  the  root.^ 

Salt  is  obtained  from  the  eastern  desert.  The  supply  in 
northern  Syria  comes  from  the  famous  valley  or  lake  of  salt, 
es-Subkh,  eighteen  miles  southeast  of  Aleppo,  near  the  vil- 
lage Jebul.  In  winter  the  rains  and  torrents  with  a  few 
springs  convert  the  surface  into  a  shallow  but  extensive  lake. 
In  summer  the  water  evaporates,  leaving  a  crust  of  salt  of 
various  thickness  and  quality ;  this  is  broken  up,  sorted,  and 
carried  to  Jebul ;  where  it  is  dried  and  winnowed,  and  thence 
sold  to  all  parts  of  the  country To  supply  the  more  southern 
parts  salt  is  brought  from  Kuryetein  and  Palmyra  (Tadmor)  ; 
near  which  latter  place  there  are  large  quantities  of  salt  in 
the  desert,  affording  a  lucrative  branch  of  commerce  to  the 
present  natives.^  Indeed,  in  various  parts  of  the  desert, 
lakes  are  formed  in  the  rainy  season,  which  extract  the  salt 
from  the  earth ;  and  drying  away  in  summer  leave  it  as  a 
crust  upon  the  surface.    An  inferior  salt  of  this  kind  is 

1  Seetzcn  in  Zach.  XVIIL  p.  342.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  34.  W.  M.  Thomson 
in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  184G,  p.  186.  E.  Smith  in  Ms.  Journal.  See  a  description 
of  these  mines  after  the  author  himself  had  visited  them,  in  Later  Biblical  Re- 
searches, p.  379. 

2  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  55.   Maundrell,  p.  213.   Pococke,  IL  p.  168. 

3  Bowring's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  20.   Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  273. 


376  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 

found  ]iot  far  from  Kutaifeh,  a  village  on  the  caravan  road 
from  Damascus  to  Hums.^ 

Along  the  coast  on  the  north  of  Tortosa  the  way  is  strewed 
for  several  hours  with  g-eodes  of  very  beautiful  chalcedony 
and  quartz,  with  an  occasional  specimen  of  agate.  These  are 
found  in  great  abundance  in  the  beds  of  the  mountain  tor- 
rents, and  arc  doubtless  washed  out  of  the  chalky  hills  above  ; 
in  which  probably  other  fine  minerals  might  be  found.  In  the 
valleys  and  defiles  between  Laodicea  and  Antioch  there  oc- 
curs beautiful  jasper  of  very  many  varieties  and  the  richest 
colors.  At  the  site  of  Daphne  the  Syrian  agate  is  particu- 
larly abundant.^ 

Of  mineral  fountains  there  are  very  few.  At  Tadmor 
there  is  a  copious  spring  highly  impregnated  with  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen  ;  which  speedily  evaporates  and  leaves  the  wa- 
ter sweet.  This  fountain  supplied  the  ancient  city  in  part ; 
and  now  turns  a  mill.'^  Some  mineral  waters,  said  to  be 
ferruginous,  have  recently  been  discovered  in  the  mountains 
back  of  Iskandcrun  ;  and  other  mineral  baths,  with  sul- 
phuric properties,  are  found  in  the  plains,  midway  between 
that  place  and  Aleppo.^ 

The  soil  of  the  Syrian  plains  is  hardly  surpassed  in  fertil- 
ity. The  Juneh  north  of  Lebanon,  the  Buka'a  and  the  Ghab 
with  the  rich  environs  of  Hums  and  Hamah,  the  Ghutah  of 
Damascus  and  the  plain  of  Antioch,  all  are  celebrated  for 
their  productions  ;  though  at  the  present  day  they  lie  for  the 
most  part  only  half  tilled.  The  vast  plains  around  IlumS  and 
Hamah  are  particularly  famous  for  their  dark  fat  soil.^  The 

1  Pococke,  II.  pp.  138,  206. 

2  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  ISll,  pp.  100,  234,  236. 
s  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  273.    0.  v.  Richter,  pp.  216,  22o. 

*  W.  B.  Barker  in  Bowrlng's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  114. 

«  0.  V.  Richter,  p.  203.   Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App,  p.  176. 


TREES  AND  PLANTS. 


377 


fertility  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  Lebanon  has  already  been 
adverted  to.  On  Anti-Lebanon  the  upper  terrace  towards 
the  east,  the  plain  of  Zebcdany,  is  well  watered  and  fruitful ; 
but  the  lower  terraces,  except  where  traversed  by  the  narrow 
valley  of  the  Barada,  are  barren.  This  tract  indeed  is  a 
desert,  and  is  called  es-Sahara,  reminding  one  of  Africa. 
North  of  the  Barada  too  it  retains  the  same  character,  and 
is  not  susceptible  of  cultivation.  Vegetation  does  not  grow 
in  it ;  nor  does  rain  enough  fall  for  sowing.  It  is  also  ex- 
tremely cold.  The  only  exception  to  tlieir  general  barren- 
ness is  found  in  small  tracts  irrigated  by  springs  of  water.  In 
such  places  the  villages  are  situated,  and  vegetation  is  luxu- 
riant.^ In  the  region  of  Aleppo  and  further  south  the  coun- 
try is  undulating  and  sometimes  hilly.  The  higher  parts  are 
covered  usually  with  a  thin  whitish  mould  ;  the  surface  of 
the  plains  and  valleys  is  a  dark  or  reddish  mould,  which  is 
very  productive.^  Indeed,  in  many  portions  of  what  is  now 
reckoned  to  the  desert,  as  in  the  direction  of  Palmyra,  the 
soil  is  good  and  capable  of  tillage  ;  requiring  only  irrigation, 
which  might  be  supplied  from  cisterns  or  reservoirs  of  rain- 
water. Even  as  it  is,  the  gronnd  is  covered  with  aromatic 
plants  and  herbs.^ 


V.  TREES  AND  PLANTS. 

The  forests  of  Syria  are  confined  to  the  mountains,  and 
mainly  to  the  more  northern  parts.  The  queen  of  its  an- 
cient forests,  the  stately  cedar  of  Lebanon,  is  still  found  ; 
but  not  in  its  former  abundance.^    On  Lebanon  the  pine 

1  Biblical  Researches,  III.,  first  edition,  App.  p.  171. 

2  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  373.  »  O.  v.  Richter,  pp.  208,  209. 

*  See  above,  p.  342.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  493  [III.  p.  440].  Later  Biblical 
Researches,  pp.  588-598. 

48 


S78 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


(^pinus  bruttia)  is  now  more  frequent,  growing  in  tracts  near 
the  summit  and  especially  along  the  eastern  declivity  ;  and 
like  the  cedars  of  old,  it  is  exported  to  Palestine  and  else- 
where for  building.^  The  oak,  the  walnut,  and  many  other 
species  of  trees  are  scattered  over  Lebanon  ;  but  do  not 
form  thickets.  Anti-Lebanon  has  few  if  any  groves  ;  the 
valonia  oak  is  found  along  its  higher  parts.^  The  northern 
skirts  of  Lebanon  and  the  northern  hills  of  Jebel  en-Nusairi- 
yeh  are  wooded  ;  while  the  northern  portion  of  the  latter 
mountains,  with  the  spurs  and  ridges  of  Mount  Casius,  are 
clothed  with  forests  of  oak  and  pine.^ 

Still  more  is  this  the  case  witli  the  ridges  of  Amanus.  So 
extensive  are  its  forests,  that  under  the  dominion  of  Muham- 
med  Ali  of  Egypt,  vast  quantities  of  timber  were  annually 
cut  upon  the  mountains  back  of  Iskanderun,  and  sent  to 
Egypt.  These  forests  are  mostly  of  oak  and  pine,  the  latter 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high ;  with 
some  beech  and  linden.  Li  18S7  the  timber  of  about  sixty 
thousand  large  trees  was  shipped  for  Alexandria ;  two  thirds 
of  which  was  for  ship-building.*  Mingled  in  the  forests,  or 
scattered  upon  the  mountains  and  occasionally  along  the 
coast  and  on  the  plains,  are  the  walnut,  beech,  chestnut, 
plane,  acacia,  silver  poplar,  willow,  tamarisk,  ash,  terebinth 
(butno),  common  cedar,  laurel,  thorn  (nubk),  and  various 
other  trees.^    The  Lombardy  poplar  abounds  particularly  in 

1  Scbubert,  HI.  pp.  317,  353,  370.  0.  v.  Ricliter,  pp.  125,  128.  Biblical  Re- 
searches, HI.  p.  192,  II.  p.  338  [III.  p.  192]. 

2  O.  V.  Richter,  p.  135.    Schubert,  HI.  p.  314. 

3  Buckingham,  Arab  Tr.,  pp.  505,  506.  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald, 
1841,  p.  234. 

4  Bowring's  Report  on  Syria,  pp.  11  sq.  66. 

6  O.  V.  Richter,  pp.  101,  108,  128.  Schubert,  HI.  pp.  284,  353.  W.  M.  Thom- 
son in  Missionary  Herald,  1841,  p.  234.   E.  Smith  in  Ms.  Journal. 


TREES  AND  PLANTS. 


379 


the  plains  of  Damascus,  on  tlie  eastern  slope  of  Anti-Lcbanou 
along  the  Barada,  and  in  the  Buka'a ;  it  is  chiefly  planted 
for  buildhig.i  The  Pride  of  India,  or  Pride  of  China  (melia 
azedarach},  of  which  Tyre  is  full,  is  described  as  a  native  of 
■  Syria.2  The  cypress  and  lotus  are  not  rare  ;  the  carob  tree 
is  less  frequent,  except  on  the  coast.^  Scattered  palm  trees 
are  found  at  Tyre  and  along  the  coast,  as  also  at  Damascus 
and  as  far  as  Palmyra  ;  but  not  at  Aleppo.^  Pistacia  trees, 
both  wild  and  cultivafted,  are  common  ;  those  in  the  gardens 
of  Aleppo  produce  the  finest  nuts.^  The  oleander  shrub  (wer- 
iu7n  oleander'),  with  its  magnificent  red  blossoms,  is  abuni 
dant  on  the  mountains  and  along  the  coast.^ 

Fruits  of  all  kinds  are  abundant ;  the  trees  are  usually  of 
large  size,  and  around  Damascus  they  furnish  the  supply  of 
fuel.'  The  olive  abounds  everywhere  on  mountain  and  plain  ; 
The  Palma  Christi  (vicinus)  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  its 
oil  used  chiefly  for  lamps.^  Large  plantations  of  the  mulberry 
are  frequent ;  the  trees  are  cropped  close,  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  foliage  and  furnish  food  for  the  silkworms.  Exten- 
sive tracts  of  vineyards  are  spread  over  Lebanon,  and  around 
the  cities.^  The  fig  tree  and  the  pomegranate  flourish  every- 
where ;  the  orange  and  lemon  prefer  the  coast,  the  winter 

1  Brown's  Travels,  p.  397.   O.  v.  Richter,  p.  154.   E.  Smith,  Ms.  Journal. 

2  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  4GG  [III.  p.  400J.    Rees'  Cyclopaedia,  art.  3feUa. 

3  Addison,  Damascus,  p.  389.  Kinneir,  Cairo,  etc.,  p.  28j.  Schubert,  III. 
p.  28-5.    Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  88. 

*  Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  4G6  [III.  p.  400].    Schubert,  III.  p.  283.    0.  v. 
Richter,  p.  225.   Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  88. 
6  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  82  sq.    Schubert,  III.  p.  2a5. 

6  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  247. 

7  Hogg's  Visit,  II.  p.  72. 

8  Schubert,  III.  pp.  285,  286.    Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  pp.  79,  80. 

»  Schubert,  III.  p.  285.   Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  80.   E.  Smith  in  Ms.  Journal. 


380 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


of  the  interior,  as  at  Aleppo,  being  too  severe.^  The  ahiiond 
tree  blossoms  even  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon  ;  while  apri- 
cots, peaches,  plums,  apples,  pears,  quinces,  cherries,  and 
liazlenuts  luxuriate  in  the  gardens.^ 

The  gardens  abound  too  in  all  the  esculent  vegetables  com- 
mon to  the  temperate  portions  of  the  Occident ;  as  melons,  cu- 
cumbers, squashes,  the  tomato,  the  egg-plant,  bananas,  the  le- 
guminous plants,  beets,  onions,  spinach,  cabbage,  and  other 
roots  and  greens  in  endless  variety The  potato  is  little 
known  among  the  natives  ;  though  Burckhardj;  speaks  of  it  as 
succeeding  in  the  highest  parts  of  Lebanon.^  Liquorice  grows 
abundantly  in  the  region  of  Aleppo  towards  the  desert ;  and 
large  quantities  of  it  are  used  in  making  a  sort  of  Sherbet, 
or  cooling  drink,  in  the  summer  season.^ 

The  chief  field  grains  are  wheat  and  barley.  Oats  are  less 
common  ;  barley  being  the  usual  food  of  horses.^  All  the  va- 
rious leguminous  plants  are  raised  in  the  fields;  also  maize  and 
millet  (dhurah).  Cotton  is  extensively  cultivated.^  Tobacco, 
which  of  course  has  been  introduced  since  the  discovery  of 
America,  forms  now  a  great  staple  of  agriculture  ;  ^  that  of 
the  Syrian  mountains  is  particularly  esteemed  by  the  pipe- 
loving  orientals,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  Jebel.  At  the 
present  day  the  population  of  Syria  is  not  sufficient  for  the 

1  Rassell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  89.   Schubert,  III.  p.  285. 

2  O.  V.  Richter,  pp.  112,  92.  Schubert,  III.  p.  284  sq.  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p. 
86  sq.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  479,  480  [III.  p.  420J. 

3  Schubert,  III.  p.  285.   Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  90  sq. 
*  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  22. 

5  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  94. 

6  Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  74. 

7  Bow rinj^'s Report  on  Syria,  pp.  8,  13.  0.  v.  Richter,  p.  112.  Schubert,  HI. 
p.  280.   Russell's  Aleppo,  I.  p.  78. 

8  Bowring's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  9.  Schubert,  III.  p.  286.  Russell's  Aleppo, 
I.  p.  78. 


BEASTS,  BIRDS,  ETC. 


381 


purposes  of  cultivation.  Regions  of  the  highest  fertility  re- 
main untillcd  ;  and  tlic  traveller  passes  for  leagues  over  the 
riche'jt  soil;  wliich  is  wliolly  unproductive  to  man.^ 

Tlie  botany  of  Syria  is  in  general  exceedingly  rich ;  espe- 
cially on  Mount  Lebanon,  where  Ehrenberg  and  Hemprich 
in  two  months  collected  specimens  of  eleven  hundred  and 
forty  different  species  of  plants.^ 

VI.   BEASTS,  BIRDS,  Etc. 

The  usual  domestic  quardrupeds  of  the  east,  are  all  found 
in  Syria  ;  the  camel,  horse,  ass,  mule,  ox,  the  tame  buffalo, 
sheep,  goats,  etc.  The  sheep  are  mostly  of  the  fat-tailed 
species  ;  and  are  commonly  mingled  in  flocks  with  the  goats. 
Many  thousands  of  sheep  are  annually  brought  into  Syria 
from  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.^  Swine  are  rarely  raised 
by  the  natives.*  Dogs  in  the  east  are  never  kept  in  the  house  ; 
but  herd  together  in  the  streets  of  the  cities  without  masters, 
and  feed  on  offal  and  carcasses ;  sleeping  mostly  by  day,  and 
barking  and  howling  by  night.  The  grayhound  is  used  for 
hunting  ;  and  there  are  shepherd's  dogs.  Of  the  cat  there  is 
also  a  Persian  variety. 

Of  game,  the  wild  swine  are  the  most  important,  and  are 
frequent  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Deer  are  mentioned 
by  Scetzen  as  found  on  Mount  Hermon  ;  but  this  may  be 
doubtful.^  Antelopes  are  found ;  especially  the  fleet  and 
graceful  gazelle.  Hares  are  abundant ;  rabbits  are  less  com- 
mon.   Squirrels  are  frequent.^    The  hedan  or  mountain 

1  Bovmng's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  9.  *^  v.  Raumer,  Palestina,  p.  31. 

3  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  26.  <  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  152. 

»  Scetzen  in  Zach.  XVIII.  p.  543. 
«  Rttsscira  Aleppo,  II.  p.  159.   0.  v.  Richter,  p.  144^ 


382 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


goat  of  the  more  southern  regions,  appears  not  to  frequent 
the  mountains  of  Syria  proper. 

Of  other  wild  animals  there  is  quite  a  variety.  The  lion, 
though  found  in  ancient  times,  has  now  disappeared.  Bears, 
panthers,  and  also  ounces,  are  common  in  Mount  Amanus, 
and  are  found  also  on  Lebanon  and  Hermon  ;  the  natives 
call  the  panthers  tigers. ^  Hyenas,  wolves,  and  foxes  are  not 
unfrequent.  Jackals  are  very  numerous  in  every  part;  at 
night  they  often  flock  around  the  houses  and  set  up  a  dis- 
mal howling.  The  polecat  and  hedgehog  are  not  unknown. 
Rats  and  mice  are  common,  both  in  the  houses  and  in  the 
gardens.  Hosts  of  field  mice  do  great  damage  to  the  crops, 
especially  around  Aleppo  and  in  the  plain  of  Hamah.^  Moles 
and  bats  are  also  frequent.  The  hamster  Qmus  cricetus)  is 
common.  The  jerboa  (dipus  jaculus)  is  very  numerous  ;  in 
some  parts  of  the  way  between  Damascus  and  Hums,  the 
earth  is  everywhere  perforated  by  their  burrows.^ 

As  to  BIRDS.  Common  poultry  of  all  kinds  is  in  plenty. 
There  are  also  immense  numbers  of  pigeons,  both  tame  and 
wild.  Of  game  there  is  an  abundance  of  water-fowl  upon 
the  lakes  and  rivers,  as  wild  ducks,  widgeon,  teal,  and  the 
like.  On  land  there  are  the  quail,  partridge,  woodcock, 
plover,  snipe,  thrush,  lark,  and  others.  The  kuta  of  the 
Arabs  (tetrao  alchatd)  is  particularly  abundant  in  Syria,  as 
well  as  in  the  more  southern  regions.  It  is  a  species  of  grouse, 
somewhat  larger  than  a  partridge  ;  the  flesh  is  black,  hard, 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  pp.  188,  189.  0.  v.  Richter  p.  105.  Burckhardt,  Syria, 
p.  22.   Seetzen  in  Zach.  XVIII.  p.  543. 

2  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  181.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  147.  Biblical  Researches, 
III.,  App.  p.  177. 

3  0.  V.  Richter,  p.  203.   Described  by  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  160  sq. 


BEASTS,  BIRDS,  ETC. 


383 


and  dry.  This  bird  ranges  in  immense  flocks  throughout 
all  the  less  inhabited  regions.^ 

Among  the  birds  of  prey  and  smaller  birds,  are  hawks  and 
falcons  of  various  kinds,  some  of  which  are  still  occasionally 
trained  for  hawking  ;2  further,  also,  the  raven,  crow,  jack- 
daw, magpie,  storks,  cranes,  the  bittern,  pelican,  lapwing, 
blackbird,  woodpecker ;  also  the  nightingale,  goldfinch,  lin- 
net, wren,  sparrows,  swallows,  and  many  others.  The  sem- 
ermer  or  locust-bird  Qendus  rosens)  is  highly  valued  as  a 
formidable  enemy  of  the  locust,  which  it  follows  and  kills  in 
great  numbers.^ 

The  rivers  and  lakes  are  well  supplied  with  fish.  The 
small  stream  of  the  Kuweik  at  Aleppo  has  not  less  than  sev- 
enteen different  species  of  fish  and  eels,  three  of  which  are 
unknown  in  Europe.  But  the  city  is  in  part  supplied  from 
the  Orontes  and  the  lake  of  Antioch.^  The  fish  of  the  Oron- 
tes  at  Shiigr  are  described  by  Maundrell  as  unwholesome  ; 
later  travellers  have  found  there  a  species  of  chub  of  several 
pounds  weight  and  very  delicate.^  In  the  lake  et-Taka  near 
the  site  of  Apamea  there  exists  a  species  called  by  the  Arabs 
black  fish,  on  account  of  its  coarse  ash-colored  flesh ;  it  is 
several  feet  long,  and  very  abundant.  The  season  of  fishing 
is  from  November  till  January ;  and  the  fish  are  sent  to 
Aleppo  and  other  parts  of  Syria.  Carp  are  likewise  taken  in 
the  same  lake,  and  sent  to  Hamah  and  Hums.^ 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  194  sq.  0.  v.  Richter,  pp.  201,  208.  Burckhardt, 
Syria,  p.  406.   Biblical  Researches,  II.  p.  200  [II.  p.  620]. 

2  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  196.  W.  M.  Thomson  in  Missionary  Herald,  1841, 
p.  101. 

3  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  pp.  205,  230.  Biblical  Researches,  II.  pp.  379,  380  fm. 
p.  252]. 

*  See  above,  p.  353.   Russell's  Aleppo,  11.  pp.  207  sq.  216. 

*  Maundrell,  p.  5.   Monro,  II.  p.  211. 

6  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  137.   Russell's  Aleppo,  n.  p.  217. 


384 


PTTYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


Of  REPTILES  there  is  the  usual  variety.  Frogs  are  found 
in  vast  abundance,  especially  in  the  river  of  Aleppo  ;  where 
they  are  of  a  large  size,  and  are  eaten  by  the  native  Chris- 
tians and  French  residents.  Toads  are  common,  as  also  the 
tree-toad  or  tree-frog.  There  are  tortoises,  both  the  land  and 
water  species.  A  kind  of  crab  unknown  in  Europe,  inhabits 
the  Kuweik,  and  makes  excursions  on  land  in  the  season  of 
fruit ;  they  are  esteemed  delicate  eating.^  The  whole  coun- 
try swarms  with  lizards,  which  delight  in  old  walls  and  ruined 
buildings  ;  a  particular  species,  less  frequent  than  others,  is 
the  chameleon,  with  its  changing  hues.^  Snakes  are  com- 
mon ;  a  harmless  kind,  of  a  whitish  gray  color  and  two  and 
a  half  feet  long,  is  often  seen  in  houses,  where  they  destroy 
mice.  Serpents  of  a  more  noxious  kind  are  found  in  the 
country  ;  but  it  is  rare  to  hear  of  mischief  done  by  them.^ 
Scorpions  are  met  with  in  summer  nights,  crawling  in  the 
streets,  or  on  the  stairs  and  flat  roofs  of  the  houses ;  their 
sting  occasions  pain  and  swelling  for  several  hours,  but  is 
unattended  by  any  further  bad  consequences.* 

Of  INSECTS,  those  made  use  of  by  man  are,  the  silkworm  in 
vast  numbers  for  the  extensive  cultivation  of  silk  as  a  staple 
of  the  country  ;  bees,  which  are  important  on  account  of 
the  great  consumption  of  honey  and  wax  ;  leeches,  found  in 
ponds  and  brooks,  and  sometimes  taken  into  the  mouth 
in  drinking,  where  they  adhere  and  give  a  great  trouble  to 
the  sufferer  ;  and  snails,  which  are  occasionally  eaten,  though 
not  often.  Wasps  and  ants  are  also  common.  Other  insect 
tribes  minister  to  man's  discomfort,  and  are  the  minor  plagues 
of  oriental  life.    Thus  the  common  fly  is  very  troublesome, 


1  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  pp.  221,  222. 

2  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  231.   0.  v.  Richter,  p.  144. 

3  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  224.  *  Russell's  Aleppo,  H.  p.  223. 


BEASTS,  BIRDS,  ETC. 


335 


and  at  some  seasons  intolerably  vexatious;  as  is  also  the 
case  with  various  other  species  which  infest  man  and  beast. 

Most  oriental  houses  swarm  with  bedbugs  and  other  like 
vermin.  Fleas  exist  in  myriads  ;  the  streets,  bazaars,  khans, 
old  buildings,  and  the  fields,  all  swarm  with  them,  so  that  it 
is  impossible  to  escape  from  them  in  the  house  or  on  the  per- 
son. Even  the  bath  and  change  of  linen  is  no  remedy  against 
fleas ;  though  it  avails  against  lice,  which  here  harbor  less  in 
the  hair  than  on  the  body  and  undergarments.  Still,  such 
are  the  careless  habits  of  the  natives,  that  travellers  rarely 
escape.  Mosquitos  and  gnats  are  another  like  pest ;  they 
reign  during  the  whole  summer,  and  are  particularly  annoy- 
ing at  night.  The  scolopendra  or  centipede,  is  less  common 
than  the  scorpion  ;  but  the  wound  inflicted  by  it  is  reckoned 
little  less  venomous  than  the  sting  of  the  latter.^ 

Of  all  the  insect  tribes  the  locust  is  the  greatest  scourge  to 
the  country  and  is  the  most  dreaded  by  the  husbandman.  The 
peasants  fight  them  with  fire  and  water  ;  but  no  means  of  de- 
fence seem  to  be  of  any  avail  against  their  immense  numbers. 
They  sweep  over  a  country  ;  and  in  a  few  days  destroy  every 
green  thing.  They  come  in  vast  flights,  darkening  the  air  ; 
and  sometimes  alight  in  masses  a  foot  deep  upon  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  At  one  time  during  the  Egyptian  rule,  the 
army  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  was  employed  in  an  attempt  to  de- 
stroy them ;  and  they  gathered  up  no  less  than  sixty-five 
thousand  ardebs,  or  more  than  three  hundred  thousand  bush- 
els. Yet  no  efforts  seem  in  any  degree  to  diminish  their 
numbers.  Such  destructive  swarms  do  not  usually  visit 
Syria  except  at  intervals  of  several  years  ;  though  few  years 
pass  that  mischief  is  not  done  by  them  in  some  part  or  other 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  H.  pp.  222-228. 
49 


386  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  SYRIA  PROPER. 


of  the  country.  Their  most  formidable  and  persevering 
enemy  is  the  locust  bird.^ 

Note.  The  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  in  Syria  and  Palestine  are 
similar  ;  thougli  better  known  in  the  former.  They  have,  therefore,  here 
been  described  in  greater  detail,  in  order  that  less  space  may  be  required 
for  them  in  the  account  of  Palestine. 

1  Russell's  Aleppo,  II.  p.  228  sq.   Bowring's  Report  on  Syria,  p.  10. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

A. 

'Abadiyeh,  village  below  Lake  of 

Tiberias  315 

Abana.    See  Amana. 

Abaraim,  Mount  61-62 

'Abilin,  Wady,  probably  valley  of 

.Jiphthah-el  106 

Absalom,  pillar  of  101 

Abulfeda,  work  of,  on  Syria  ...  9 
Abu  'Obeida,  village  .  .  .  .  177 
Abu  ZabQra,  river,  description 

of  108,  192 

Adonis,  river,  now  Nahr  Ibrahim  360 
Adora,  town,  now  Dura  .  .  .  118 
'Afrin,  river,  at  Lake  of  Antioch  350 
Agate,  specimens  of,  near  Daphne  376 
Ahmed,  Wady,  near  Bethlehem  .  115 
Ahsy,  Wady  el,  and  river.  Scrip- 
ture Zered,  boundary  between 
Moab  and  Edom  .    .  88,183-184 

Ai,  pools  at  site  of  280 

'Ain  Abus,  village  109 

'Ain  el'-Arils,  at  foot  of  cliffs  of 

Akkrabim  258 

'Ain  'Askar,  near  Nabulus  .  .  248 
'Ain  el-Bassa,  near  Hebron  .  .  249 
'Ain  el-Beida,  near  Beisan  .  .  254 
'Ain  Belateh,  in  the  Huleh  250,  251 
'Ain  ed-Deir,  near  Beisan  .  •  .  253 
'Ain  ed-Dirweh,  near  Hebron  .  249 
'Ain  D&k,  fountains  of .  .  .  .  254 
'Ain  Faluj,  watershed  at,  between 

Litany  and  Jordan  rivers    .    .  348 
'Ain  Feshkhah,  at  Dead  Sea,  de- 
scription of  256 

'Ain  Fiiliyeh,  fountains  between 
Tiberias  and  Magdala   .    .   .  253 


PAGE 

'Ain  Fusail   254 

'Ainel-Habis   242 

'Ain  Hajla,  near  Jericho  .  .  .  255 
'Ain  Haniyeh,  or   St.  Philip's 

well   242 

'Ain  el-Haramiyeh   249 

'Ain  Jalud,  fountain  of  Jezreel 

91,  185,  245 

'Ain  el-Jedid,  near  Hebron    .    .  250 

'Ain  Jehair,  near  Dead  Sea    .    .  256 

'Ain  Jenneh,  village   262 

'Ain  Kena'a,  near  Hebron  .    .    .  250 

'Ain  Kashkala,  near  Hebron  .    .  250 

'Ain  Lifta   242 

'Ain  Makhuz,  near  Beiscin     ,    .  253 
'Ain  Wady  Miilih,  or  salt  foun- 
tain   254 

'Ain  el-Meiyiteh,  at  Jezreel  .  .  185 
'Ain  Mellahah,  great  fountain  in 

the  Huleh   250,  251 

'Ain  el-Mudauwarah,  or  round 

fountain,  near  Magdala  .    .    .  252 

'Ain  Nunkur,  near  Hebron    .    .  249 

'Ain  Sakut,  near  BeisAn    .    .    .  254 

'Ain  SAra,  near  Hebron     .    .    .  250 

'Ain  Shukaf   242 

'Ain  Sinai   241 

'Ain  es-Sultan,  at  Jericho  .  .  94,  255 
'Ain  Tabigah,  at  plain  of  Gennes- 

sareth   77 

'Ain  Terabeh,  at  Dead  Sea    .    .  50 

'Ain  et-Tin,  near  Khan  Minyeh  .  252 

'Ain  Yalo   242 

Ajalon,  valley  of   113 

Fountain  of   242,  243 

'Ajmn,  Wady  of   86 

Jebel  'Ajl£in   57 


388 


INDEX. 


'Akib,  Wady  el,  in  HaurAn  .    .  174 

'Akir.    See  Ekron. 

Akhdar,  Xahr  or  river,  south  of 

Caesarea   192 

Aklim  el-Bellan   85 

Akrabbim,  or  Scorpion  Cliffs  .  17,  53 
'Akrabah,  ancient  Akrabatene, 

pool  at   281 

'Akur,  village   115 

Alia  Specula,  of  the  Crusaders, 

now  Tell  es-Safieh  .  .  .  .  118 
'Allan,  Wady,  in  Hauran  .  .  .  174 
'Allar  es-Sifla,  fountain  of  .  .  244 
Aleppo,  climate  and  height  of  .  368 
'Aly,  "Wady,  course  of  .  .  .  .  112 
Amana  or  Abana,  river  of  Damas- 
cus.   (SeeBarada).   .       .    .  362 

Am  anus.  Mount   333 

Passes  of   336 

Ammon,  Rabbath,  now  'Amman, 

fountain  at   262 

Amorites,  Mount  of   53 

'Amftd,  Wady  el.  near  Safed  .    .  89 
'Amudiyeh,  stream  in  the  Huleh  250 
'Amwas,  ancient  jSicopolis,  foun- 
tains at   243 

Anderson,  Dr.  II.  J.,  Geological 

Report  of   171 

'Anebta,  village   108 

Anem,  town   239 

Animals  of  Syria  ....  381,382 

'Anjar,  fountain  of  the  Litany   .  355 

Antioch,  lake  of   350 

Antipatris,  now  Kefr  Saba     .    .  109 

Apamea,  site  of   353 

Aqueducts,  ancient,  at  'Ain  Dak 
'Ain  es-Sultan,  at  'Akka,  at 
Hebron ;  ancient  acquaintance 
with  the  principle  of  .    .    .  284-286 
'Arab,  "Wady  cl,  in  Hauran   .  175,  176 

'Arabah   62 

Hebrew  name  to  whole  Jordan 

valley  73,  74 

Arbela,  now  Irbid,  Scripture  Beth 

Arbel,  fortified  caves  of  .    .    .  90 

Ard  el-Hemar,  district  of  .  .  .  262 
'Areiyeh,  W ady  and  fountain  in, 

at  Dead  Sea   258 


'Arish,  village  and  Wady  of, 

river  of  Egypt  .  .  .  .  17,123 
'Arjan,  fountains  at,  in  Jebel  Aj- 

lun   261 

Arnon,  valley  of,  now  Wady  Mo- 
jib,  with  river  88,  180 

'Arny,  river  85 

Aroer   181 

Arsuf,  village  and  river  of,  ancient 

ApoUonia   .    .    .    .    110,  192,  193 

'Ary,  in  Hauran   173 

'Asal,  Wady  el,  in  Hermon  .  .  84 
Asochis,  plain  of,  now  el-But- 

tauf   130 

Asor,  plain  of   128 

Asphaltum,  at  Dead  Sea  .  .  .  220 
Atmosphere,  purity  and  clearness 

of  in  Palestine   307 

Atallah,  Wady   112 

'Attinls,  Jebel,  east  of  Dead 

Sea  61 

Town  of.  Scripture  Ataroth.  .  67 
Aulon,  Greek  for  el-Ghor  ...  74 

'Aujeh,  river  near  Yafa     .    .    .  109 

Great  fountain  of   193 

Wady  el,  west  of  the  Jordan  .  94 

'Awaj,  river,  ancient  Pharpar     .  364 

Branches  of   172,  365 

Awaly,  river,  ancient  Bostrenus 

341,  362 

' Aweirid,  Wady  el,  in  Hauran  .  1 74 
'AyQn,  Wady  el,  in  Upper  Gali- 
lee, also  called  Wady  Azziyeh  105 

Azotus,  Mount  of  47 

'Azzihn,  Wady  el,  course  of  .    .  109 


Baalah,  Mount  47 

I  Ba'albek,  elevation  of  ...  .  348 
Baal  Hermon,  Mount   ....  347 

'  Baal  Meon  64, 1 78 

Banids,  anc.  Caesarea  Philippi, 

site  of  75,  150 

•River  of  1.50,  151 

Barada,  river,  anc.  Amana,  source  345 

Course   363 

Bashan,  extent  of  56 

Batanaea,  district  of  56 


INDEX. 


389 


Batihah, plain  of  at  Lake  Tiberias  77 
Bedawiyeli,  Wady  el,  called  also 

WadyMelek   107 

Beersheba,  wells  of   265 

Beirut,  river  of,  anc.  Magoras     .  361 

Beit  Ilaniua,  Wady  el    ....  114 

Fountains  in   242 

Beit  Jala,  village   115 

Beit  Jenn,  village   105 

Beit  Jibrin,  and  Eleutheropolis   .  118 

Wells  of   269 

Beit  Xettif   117 

Beit  Kukkaba   115 

BeitNusib   117 

Beit  Sakarieh   116 

Beit  Tulma,  ruin  of   242 

Belat,  Wady,  called  also  Wady 

Kuril  wa   110 

Belka,  district  and  plain  of,  anc, 

southern  Gilead,  river  of  at  Tan- 

tura   59,  190,  191 

Belus,  river,now  Nabr  Na'man  106, 187 
Beni  Hamady,  Wady,  at  Dead 

Sea   227 

Hot  spring  in   260 

Beni  Na'tim,  east  of  Hebron  .    .  274 

BcTachah,  valley  of   103 

Besor,  brook  of,  now  Wady  *Ara- 

rah  121,  122 

Bethany,  road  to  from  Jerusalem,  43 
Beth  Arbel.  See  Arbela    .    .  . 

Beth-barah   168 

Bether  and  Bithron,  mountains 

of   68 

Beth-haccarem   44 

Beth  Hogla,  now  'Ain  Hajla  .    .  256 

Beth-horons  112,  270 

Beth  Saida,  site  of   155 

Beth-Shemcsh  ....    46,  114,  270 

Bireh,  Wady  el,  from  Tabor,     .  90 

Village   114 

Fountains  at   241 

Bir  Beshiit,  cistern   275 

Bir  Ejda,  great  cistern  of  .    .    .  274 

Bir  Jenab,  Wady, also  Wady  Eibah  110 

Birds  of  Syria   382 

Birket  eMvhulil  at  Dead  Sea     .  217 

Birweh,  fountain  of   243 


Bittir,  Wady,  village,  .    .    .    .  115 

Fountain  of   242 

Bitumen,  mines  of  at  Hasbeiya  .  374 

Bordeaux  pilgrim,  Itinerary  of  .  8 

Bozrah,  now  Busrah,  in  Hauran  .  174 

Fountains  at   261 

Brocardus,  work  of,  on  Palestine  9 

Bujjeh,  lake  of,  in  Hauran     .    .  174 

Buka'a, valley  of,  anc.Coele-Syria  347 

Burdony,  stream  from  Zahleh  .  355 
Bureij,  offset  from  the  river  of 

Dan  150,  152. 

Bureir,  village   118 

Burghuz,  bridge,  chasm  of  Leon- 

tes  at   356 

Burkin,  village   134 

Bursheh,  Wady   93 

Buttauf,  el,  plain  of  Zebulun    22,  130 

C. 

CalliiThoe,  called  also  Baris,  hot 

fountains  179,  180 

Cana  of  Galilee   130 

Canaan,  signification  of  the  name  15 

Capernaum,  site  of   252 

Carmel,  Mount,  description  of  28-30 
I     Sacrifice  of  Ehjah  at  .    .    .  30-31 
Casius,  Mount,  promontory,  now 

Jebel  Akra    336 

Cedars  of  Lebanon   342 

Chalus,  now  Kurreik,  river  of 

Aleppo   336 

I  Clierith,brook  of.  See  Wady  Kelt. 
Chinnereth,  Hebrew  for  Gennes- 

i     aret   203 

•j  Cisterns,  frequency  and  character 

!        of   272 

j     Near  Hebron  and  Jerusalem   .  274 

1     As  receptacles  for  grain  .    .    .  277 

Climate,  of  Palestine     ....  288 

Healthiness  of   308 

Of  Syria   366 

Temperature   367 

Coele-Syria.  See  Buka'a. 

I  Costigan,  explorer  of  the  Jordan  169 

Coal  in  Lebanon   342 

Craters,  extinct   317 


INDEX. 


390 

D. 

Dale,  Lieut  171 

Damascus,  climate  and  elevation 

of  371 

Damur,  river,  anc.  Tamyras  .    .  361 

Dan,  town  81 

Leddiln,  or  great  fountain  at  150 
Wady  ed  Dan,  in  Hauran  .    .  173 
Daniyal,  village  east  of  Lydda    .  269 

Daumeh,  village  248 

Dead  Sea  10 

Lower  level  than  the  Mediter- 
ranean  35 

Mountains  west  of    .    .    .  50-53 
Mountains  east  of     ...    .  60 
Description  of  the  sea,  form  and 
extent,  Hebrew  name  of  206,  208 

Depth  of  208 

Depression  209 

View  of,  from  the  western  cliffs 

210-212 

Analyses  of  its  water     .  .212-214 

Bathing  in  215 

Evaporation  from  217 

Deposits  of  salt     .    .    .  217,218 

Stories  of  219 

Climate  219 

Asphaltum  220 

Character  of  the  shores  .  .  221-223 
Salt  marsh  at  the  southern  end  223 

Minerals  of  224 

Peninsula  of  225 

Supposed  islands  in  .  .  .  .  228 
The  ford  across  the  sea  .    .    .  229 

Navigation  of  230 

Volcanic  rocks  about  .  •  .  323 
Debir,  now  Dewirban  ....  249 
Debfirich,  village  at  Tabor  and 

stream  from  188 

Dcidebeh,  hill  of  106 

Deir  Estieh,  village    .    .    .    109,  249 

Delata,  village  315 

Der'a,  in  IlaurSn  174 

Dera'ah,  Wady  cd,  from  Kcrak  .  88 
Dedarah,  stream  of,  branch  of  Jor- 
dan  146,  184 

Derejeh,  Wady  ed  104 

Dew,  abundant  in  Palestine  .    .  294 


Dibon   88 

Dibs,  sirup  from  grape  juice  .    .  343 

Dor,  now  TantClra,  river  of   .    .  191 

Dothan   107 

Plain  of   134 

Fountian  at   246 

Duk,  fountains  of   80 

Aqueduct  from   284 

E. 

Earthquakes,  frequency  of     .    .  324 

Earthquake  of  Uzziah  .  .  .  325 
Other  historical  earthquakes  325-327 

Of  Syria    374 

Ebal,  Mount,  description  of   .    .  37 

Edrei,  now  Edlira'   173 

Egypt,  river  of,  now  Wady  el 

'Arish  17,  123 

Ekron,  now  'Akir    ....   47.  270 

Elah,  now  Wady  es-Sumt     .  71,  117 

Eleale,  site  of   60 

Eleutherus,  river,  now  Nahr  el- 

Kebfr   358 

Elusa,  now  Khulasah    ....  123 

Enam,  town   240 

En-eglaim   239 

Engannim,  now  Jenin  ....  239 
Engcdi,  mountains  of,  wilderness  50-51 

Fountains  of   257 

En-Haddah   239 

En-IIarod  in  valley  of  Jezreel    .  240 

En-Iiazor   239 

En-Hiittanin   240 

En-Mishpat   239 

En-rogel,  well  of   98 

En-shemesh  • .    .  240 

En-tappuah   240 

Endor,  site  of  27,  188 

Enkheilch,  branch  of  river  Arnon, 
also  called   Lej&ra,  Scripture 

Nahaliel   181 

Enon   240 

Ephraim,  Mount,  region  of   .    .  35 

Ephron,  Mount   45 

Eshcol.  See  Hebron. 

Esdraelon,  plain  of  Jezreel  .    32,  131 

Fountains  in   245 

Eshmishkin,  village   173 


INDEX. 


391 


Etam,  fountain  of   .    .  .  *.  .  . 

284 

Sandstone  formation  .    .  313,314 

Eunuch,  place  of  baptism  by 

Conglomerate,  marl  .... 

314 

Philip  

119 

Volcanic  tracts      .    .    .  .314- 

-324 

123 

F. 

266 

Fahil.    See  Pella. 

37 

109 

Seat  of  the  Samaritan  temple  . 

39 

River  of.    See  Arsiif. 

Geshur,  and  Geshurites  .... 

155 

Far'ia,  plain  of    ....  48,  79,  92 

Ghab,  el,  valley  and  plain  of  the 

186 

Orontes   337, 

353 

Fendekumieh,  ancient  Penteco- 

Ghar,  Wady  el,  west  of  Dead  Sea  104 

246 

173 

118 

Ghor,  valley  of  the  Jordan,  moun- 

Fever, malarial,  prevalence  of  in 

tains  of  its  western  side  .  . 

'48 

309 

Extent  and  connections  .    .  . 

72 

Fijeh,  fountain  of  

363 

'Ai'abah  its  Hebrew  name   .  . 

73 

Fik,  Wady  el,  east  of  Tiberias  . 

86 

75 

Village  and  fountains     .    .  . 

261 

Valleys  or  plains  in  it    .    .  80, 

138 

383 

Side  valleys  from  the  east  .  . 

83 

Fogs,  common  in  Palestine    .  . 

294 

Side  valleys  from  the  west  .  . 

89 

Fountains,  remarks  upon  .    .  . 

238 

148 

Scripture  names  four  foun- 

Ghurab, Wady  el     .    .    .  .46,114 

tains                               239,  240 

Ghutah,  plain  of  Damascus  .  . 

350 

Fountains  of  the  Western  Plain 

243 

Gibeah,  hill  of,  now  Tuleil  el  Fill 

42 

Of  hill-country  west  of  the  Jor- 

137 

244 

241 

250 

279 

Of  hill-country  east  of  Jordan 

260 

100 

"Warm  and  mineral  fountains  . 

263 

101 

44 

Frost  infrequent  in  Palestine 

291 

Village,  now  Jelbon  .... 

133 

379 

Gilead,  land  or  mount  of  .    .  . 

57 

Fuheis,  fountains  near  .    .    .  . 

262 

el-Belka,  southern  district  of  . 

59 

Fusail,  ancient  Phasaelis   .    .  . 

93 

111 

G. 

H. 

Gaash,  hill  of,  grave  of  Joshua  41 

111 

109 

42 

275 

Gadara,  city  of,  now  Um  Keis, 

291 

warm  springs  at   .    .    .  .175 

263 

120 

Gaulonitis.    See  Jaulan. 

Hamah,  city,  and  course  of  Oron- 

G^nnesareth,  plain  of   ...  . 

77 

352 

Lake.    See  Tiberias. 

Hamam,  Wady  el,  fortified  caves 

Geodes,  of  quartz  and  chalcedony  376 

in.    See  Arbela. 

Geology  of  Palestine  .... 

311 

Hammath,probable  Hebrew  name 

General  limestone  formation  . 

312 

206 

Magnesian  limestone  or  dolomite  313 

105 

INDEX. 


392 

Hamy  Sukker,  Wady  in  Ilauran  174 

Hannathon,  town  106 

Haram  of  Jerusalem,  over  Kidron  97 
Harvest,  seasons  of,  in  Palestine  301 
Hasbany,  river  or  Upper  Jordan  146 

Junction  with  other  branches  of 
Jordan  152 

Not  mentioned  in  Scripture     .  154 

Hasy,  Wady  118 

Hattin,  village,  scene  of  Saladin's 

victory  over  the  Crusaders   .  22 

KurCln  Hattin,  supposed  place 
of  Sermon  on  the  Mount     .  22 

Fountain  of  245 

Hauriin,  mountains  of,  ancient  Al- 

sadamus  55,  56 

Plain  of,  or  en-N(ikrah  .    .    .  139 

Extent  .319 

Hazor,  also  Asor,  now  Tell  Klm- 

raibeh  129 

Hazur,  'Ain,  south  of  es-Salt .    '.  262 

Hebr^in,  in  Haur&n  261 

Hebron,  vale  of,  same  with  brook  • 

of  Eshcol  120-122 

Pool  of    .    .  278 

Heish,  Jebel   54,  346 

Hemar,  Wady  el  86 

Hcndfij,  Wady  el,  at  the  Huleh  .  89 
Hermon,  Mount,  Little  Hermon  .  26 

Great  Hermon,  or  Jcbel  esh- 
Sheikh,  valleys  of  ...    .  84 

Scripture  allusions  to  ...    .  346 

Other  names  347 

Herodium,  site  of  44 

Heshbon,  site  of  60,  64 

Fountain  at  263 

Wady  HcsbAn,  or  Heshbon .    .  87 
Hicromax,  river.    See  Yarmuk. 
Hinnom,  valley  of  45 

Description  of  98 

Hizmeh,  fountain  near  ....  242 
Hor,  Mount,  at  northern  boundary 

of  Palestine  345 

Hot  and  saline  springs  .  .  .  260,  263 
Htij,  village  on  the  road  to  Gaza  269 
Hiileh,  lake  of  10 

Plain,  description  of    .    75,  76,  198 

Fountains  of  250 


Hums,  pli^  of   10 

Lake  of  '   352 

Hureir,  Wady  in  Hauran  .  .  .  173 
Hurmul,  village  near  source  of 

Orontes   351 

Husdn,  fountain  of   242 

Husn  el-Akrdd,  castle  in  northern 

Syria   337 

I. 

Ibrahim,  Nahr.  See  Adonis  .  .  360 
Idhna,  ancient  Jedrra    .    .  .118,269 

Insects  of  Syria   384 

Iksal  on  Esdraelon   188 

Iron  Mountain,  of  Josephus  .  .  67 
Iskanderun,  or  Alexandretta,  un- 

healthiness  of   371 

Isma'il,  Wady  course  of    .    .    .  114 

Issus,  bay  of   333 

Itineraries,  of  the  Middle  Ages  .  8 

Iturea,  district  of  85,  319 

J. 

Jabcsh  Gilead   86 

Jabbok,  river,  now  ez-Zurka  57,  176,177 

Jabneh  or  Jamrala,  now  Yebneh  113 

Jacob's  well   137 

Description  of   267 

Jalftd,  stream  of,  description  .    .  185 

Jasper,  found  in  Lebanon  .  .  .  376 
Jaulan,  district  of,  ancient  Gaul- 

onitis   54 

Volcanic  character  of .    .    .    .  319 

Jearim,  Mount   46 

Jeba',  village,  fountain  of  .    .    .  246 

Jebel  'AjlDn,  description  of  .  .  57 
Jebel  'Akkcir,  volcanic  character 

of   373 

Jebel  'AttarCls.    See  'AttdrOis. 

Jebel  HaurAn   54,  321 

Jebel  Heish   54,  346 

Jebel  Jcl'ad.    .    .   58 

Jebel  Keneiseh,  on  Lebanon  .  .  340 
Jebel  Mukhmal,  high  point  of 

Lebanon   340 

Jebel  en-Nusairiyeh   337 

Jebel  Osha',  or  Hosea,  in  Gilead  59 

Jebel  Eiha  .    •   337 


IXDEX. 


393 


Jebel  Kihan,  southern  part  of 

Entrance  into  Lake  Tiberias  . 

156 

341 

Rapids  and  shallowness  in  sum- 

Jebcl  Sheikh.    Sec  Hermon. 

157 

Jebel  Shihan,  east  of  Dead  Sea  . 

68 

159 

Jebel  Sunnin,  highest  point  of 

160 

340 

160 

Jedilr,  fountain  near  es-Salt  .  . 

262 

Entrance  into  Dead  Sea     .  . 

161 

District,  ancient  Iturea  .    .  . 

319 

General  features  of  the  Jor- 

Jehoshaphat,  valley  of  ...  . 

102 

161 

Jenin,  ancient  En-gannira  .    .  . 

239 

Height  and  extent  of  its  ter- 

246 

163 

85 

Descent  and  overflow  of    .  162, 

163 

Jcrash,  ancient  Gerasa  .... 

177 

Loneliness  of  its  valley  .    .  . 

164 

80 

186 

Jordan  as  a  boundary     .  166, 

167 

21 

Place  of  John's  baptizing   .  . 

168 

108 

168 

Jezrecl,  now  Zer'in,  valley  of  26,  7i 

3,  91 

168 

Jczzin,  town  in  Lebanon    .    .  . 

341 

Tributaries  

171 

110 

106 

Jiphthah-el,  valley  of  .... 

106 

263 

Jish,  extinct  craters  near    .    .  . 

317 

Judah,  Mount  of,  or  hill-country 

Jisr  Bendt  Ya'kob,  bridge  over 

•  of  

35 

155 

Jufna.    See  Gophna. 

Jisr  Dumieh,  Koman  bridge  over 

Juneh,  bay  of  in  Kesrawan     .  . 

350 

159 

Junia,  or  Jun  'Akkar,  plain  along 

Jisr  el-Hadid,  on  the  Orontes  .  . 

353 

coast  of  Northern  Syria  .    .  . 

338 

Jisr  el-Mejami'a,  over  Jordan  .  . 

158 

Justinian,  fortress  of  on  Geri- 

Jisr  es-Semakh,  ruins   of,  over 

40 

157 

Job,  well  of.  Scripture  En-rogel  98,  269 

K. 

John  the  Baptist,  scene  of  his  exe- 

243 

67 

Kadesh  Barnea,  probably  'Ain  el- 

168 

Weibeh  

17 

242 

Kadesh  Naphthali,  now  Kedes  . 

75 

Jordan,  valley  of.     See  Ghor. 

Plain  of  

128 

Description  of  the  western  range 

128 

along  its  valley  ....  32 

,  33 

94 

144 

108 

Signification  of  its  name     .  . 

145 

Kana,  village  and  stream  in  Anti- 

146 

355 

Great  fountain  at  Dan    .    .  . 

149 

109 

Source  from  Banias  .... 

150 

Kara  Su,  river  in  north  of  Syria 

336 

Junction  of  its  streams,  their 

Kushabeh,  Wady  at  Banias    .  . 

150 

relative  size    ....  152, 

153 

Kasimiyeh,  name  for  river  Litany 

357 

Historical  notices  of  these  foun- 

106 

153 

Kefr  Haneh,  village  in  Lebanon 

341 

Distance  between  its  upper  lakes  155 

Kefr  Kud,  ancient  Carpacotia 

135 

50 


394 


INDEX. 


Kefr  Mend  a,  village   106 

Kefr  Saba,  ancient  Antipatris  .  270 
Kelb,  Nahr  el,  or  Dog  River,  anc. 

Lycus  .361 

Kerak,  village,  ancient  Kir  Moab  68 

Valley  and  stream  of .    .    .    .  183 

Fountains  at   263 

Kesla,  village,  ancient  Chesalon  .  46 

Kesrawan,  district  of     ....  350 

Keziz,  valley  of   82 

KhAn  el-Lubban,  fountain  at  .    .  249 

Khdn  et-Tujar,  fountain  at     .    .  245 

Khan  Yumas   123 

Khanzireh,  village,  fountains  of  .  263 
Khanzir,  Wady,  ancient  Bera- 

chah   104 

Khirb  el-Lauz   242 

Khiyara,  village   147 

Khurdela,  bridge  over  the  Leontes  357 

Khudr,  el,  fountains  of  ...    ,  242 

Khulil,  Wady,  vale  of  Hebron   .  121 

Kidron,  valley  of  96,  97 

Kilkilieh,  village   109 

King's  Dale   101 

Kirjathaira   67 

Plain  of   142 

Kirjath  Jearim   46 

Kir  ^Nloab.    See  Kerak. 
Kishon,  river,  now  Nahr  el-Mu- 

kutta'  107,  187 

Sources   188-190,  243 

Kuba'a,  village,  and  fountain  at  .  251 

Kubab,  village   112 

Grain  cisterns  at   277 

Kubaliin,  village   110 

Kub&tieh,  village   135 

Kul'at  el-K^traneh   181 

Kul'at  er-Rubud   87 

Kul'at  ez-Zerka   177 

KalOnieh,  village   115 

Fountain  of   242 

Kunawat,  "Wady,  branch  of  the 

Yarmuk   173 

Scripture  Kenath,  village  and 

fountains  of   261 

Kuneitirah,  village   172 

Kurawa,  plain  of  Wady  Fari'a  79,  111 

Kureiyeh,  in  Hauran    ....  174 


Kurmul,  village   120 

Kurn,  Wady   105 

Kurnayil,  village  and  coal  mines 

in  Lebanon   342 

Kurn  Surtabeh,  promontory  .    .  33 

Description  of  48,  79 

Kusttil,  village,  site  of  ...    .  46 

Kuweik,  river  of  Aleppo,  fish  of  351 
KAvreh,  natural  bridge  over  the 

Leontes   356 

KAza,  village   109 

Larissa,  site  of   353 

Latron,  village   33 

River   112 

Lebanon,  Mount,  description  of  .  339 

Signification  of  its  name    .    .  340 

Geological  formation ....  342 

Coal  mines  in   342 

Cedars  and  trees  of  .    .    .  342, 343 

Wine  of   343 

Fertility   344 

Anti-Lebanon,  description  of  its 

range   345 

Southern  portion  or  Hermon  .  346 
Lebweh,  village,  source  of  the 

Orontes   351 

Leddan,  great   fountain  of  the 

Jordan   1 50 

Legio.    See  Megiddo. 

Lejah,  volcanic  district  of  the 

Hauran   320 

Lejilm,  branch  of  Arnon  .    .    .  181 

Lejjiin,  village   33 

Fountain   246 

Lions,  not  found  in  Syria  .  .  .  382 
Litany,description  of  its  gorge  354-358 

Locusts,  of  Syria   385 

Locust  birds   386 

Lubban,  plain  of   Ill 

Ludd,  Wady,  also  called  Muzei- 

ri'ah   Ill 

Luweizany,  fountain  of,  branch 
of  Upper  Jordan  .    .    .    .  148,  316 

Lydda,  village  of   33 

Lynch,  expedition  of   .    .    .    .  170 

At  Dead  Sea   232 


INDEX. 


395 


M. 

Macherus,  fortress  of,  over  Dead 
Sea,  scene  of  John  the  Baptist's 

execution     .   67 

Mahanaim   86 

Makhrud,  Mount  of .    .    .    .    32,  78 

Mamre,  plain  of   138 

Maresha,  town  of   118 

Mdron,  St.,  cave  of,  at  the  Orontes  352 

Mar  Saba,  convent  of  ...  .  98 
Masada,  fortress  of,  OA-er  Dead 

Sea   51 

Cisterns  x)f   273 

Mauz,  Wady  from  Pella  .  .  .  259 
Megiddo,  plain  of.  Scripture  name 

for  Esdraclon   189 

Meiron,  fountain  near  ....  244 
Mejdel  Yilba,  village     .    .     110,  193 

Merj  el-Ghuruk   135 

Merj  Ibn  'Amir,  Arabic  name  for 

plain  of  Esdraelon    ....  134 

Merj  Yafdny    .......  84 

Merom.    See  Hiileh. 

Mezarib,  in  Hauran,  lake  at     173,  174 

Mezra'ah,  village  at  isthmus  of 

Dead  Sea   227 

Mezzeh,  village  near  Damascus  .  364 

Milh,  Wady,  south  of  Carmel    .  29 

Minerals  of  Syria   374 

Mizpeh,  site  of  42,  85 

Moab,  region  and  i)lain  of  .  .  .  62 
Moladah,  now  el-Milh  .  .  .122,  269 
Molyneux,  expedition  of  on  Dead 

Sea  and  Jordan   169 

Mons  Angaris,  of  Pliny    ...  47 

Mons  Bargylus,  situation  of  .    .  337 

Montfort,  castle  of,  now  Kurein  .  105 

Moreh,  plain  or  oak  of  .    .    .    .  138 

Mount  of  the  Beatitudes    ...  22 

Of  Precipitation  near  Nazareth  23 

Of  Transfiguration    ....  26 

Mountain  of  Salt,  at  Dead  Sea  .  52 

Mu'akkar,  "Wady  in  Hauran  .  174 
Mughanniyeh,  branch   of  river 

'Awaj   172 

Mughdr,  village  and  fountain  at  251 

Mughitbeh,  pass  over  Lebanon  .  340 

Muhauwat,  Wady   314 


Mukhna,  plain  of  136 

Muntcir,  wely  el  48 

Musheirifeh,  fountains  of   .    .    .  243 

N. 

Nabulus,  ancient  Shechem  and 

Sychar   108 

Numerous  fountains  at  .    .  247,  248 

Nahleh,  fountain  of   355 

Nahr  Na'mun,  ancient  river  Belus  106 

Nahr  Rubin,  valley  of   ....  113 

Naphthali,  region  of   21 

Nebo,  Mount   61 

City  of   64 

Neby  Samwil,  probable  site  of 

Mizpeh  42 

Nejrcin,  village   173 

Nephtoah,  fountain  of,  now  'Ain 

Karim                                 45,  240 

Nimrah,  now  Nimrin    ....  87 

Waters  of   259 

O. 

Oflfence,  Mount  of,  near  Jeru- 
salem  43 

Olives,  Mount  of,  description  of  .  43 
Ono,  valley  or  plain  of  .  .  113,  127 
Onomasticon,  of  Eusebius     .    .  8 

P. 

Palestine,  middle  portion  of  the 
tract  between  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Red  Sea   2 

Its  central  position  in  the  an- 
cient world   4 

Early  and  modern  writers  on     8-1 1 

Boundaries  of  16-18 

Panium,  temple  and  cave  at  Ba- 

nias  151 

Pella,  site  of,  now  Fahil,  fountain 

of  259 

Peor,  Mount  61,  65,  66 

Perazim,  Mount  45 

Phagor,  or  Phogor,  site  of .  .  .  242 
Pharpar.    See  river  A'waj. 

Phenician  plain  349 

Phiala,  lake  of,  now  Birket  er- 

Ram   75,  196-198 


396 


Philistines,  plain  of  the     ...  127 

Pierius,  Mount  335 

Pine  forests  of  Amanus  .  .  .  378 
Pirathon,  now  Fer'ata  ....  41 

Pisgah,  Mount  61,  63 

Pools,  character  of  277 

Solomon's  Pools  ....  281-284 
Promontorium  Album,  near  Tyre  18 
Pylae,  gates  or  passes  of  Amanus  336 

Q- 

Quarantana,  Mount, alleged  scene 
of  the  Temptation     .    .    .    49,  50 

Quaresimus,  work  of  on  Pales- 
tine   9 

R. 

Rabbath,  Ammon,  now  'Amm<in 

ruins  of   177 

Rahhaniyeh,  fountain  of    .    .    .  246 
Rain,  early  and  latter  rain  of  Pal- 
estine   291 

Ramah,  plain  of,  in  Galilee  22,  105,  129 

Ramah  of  Ashcr,  fountain  at  .  244 

Ramathaim  Zophim     ....  36 

Ramin,  village  ....  108,  275 
Ramoth  Gilead,  probably  now  es- 

Salt   60 

Ramleh   33 

Raphon,  river   86 

Ras  el-'Ain,  fountain  in  Sharon  .  Ill 

Great  fountains  near  Tyre  .  .  365 
RfiLs  el-Feshkah,  promontory  of 

Dead  Sea   50 

Rasheiya,  town  of   146 

Ras  esh-Shuka,  promontory,  anc. 

Theuprosopon   349 

Rawy,  'Ain   258 

Rehoboth,  wells  of   266 

Roland,  work  of  on  Ancient  Pal- 
estine   11 

Remmon,  town  of   106 

Rephaim,  valley  of  .  45,  99,  116,  137 

Reptiles,  of  Syria   384 

Rhinocolura,  now  'Arish  .    .    .  124 

Ribleh,  village   352 

Ritter,  Carl,  work  of  on  Palestine,etc.  10 


Rivers  of  Syria,  sources  of    .    .  1 54 
Rubin,  Wady,  course  of   .    .  113,  194 
Rubtidiyeh,  Wady,  west  of  Tibe- 
rias   89 

Ruhbeh,  plain  of   322 

Ruhaibeh,  Wady   123 

Rukad,  Wady  el,  in  Hauran  .    .  174 

Rumeish,  village  of   104 

S. 

Sa'adiyeh,  foitntain  of  the  Kishon  190 
Sabbatical  River,  now  Nahr  el- 

'Arus   359 

Safa,  volcanic  tract  of  ...    .  322 

Safed,  town  of   21 

Sajiir,  river,  tributary  of  Euphra- 
tes   351 

Sakut,  ancient  Succoth     .  78,  81,  165 

Salem,  same  as  Jerusalem .    .    .  102 

Sdlim,  village  and  fountains  .    .  248 
Salt,  mountain  of,  at  Dead  Sea, 
site  of  valley  of  Salt,  and 

city  of  Salt  52,  83 

Fountains  of   262 

Lake  of,  south  of  Aleppo   .    .  375 
Samaria,  mountains  of,  equiva- 
lent to  mountains  of  Ephraim  36 
Samaritans,  origin  of   ...    .  39 

SanCir,  castle  of   135 

Sarah,  fountain  near  Kerak   .    .  263 

Saris,  village  33,  115 

Satuf,  village  and  fountain    .  115,  242 

Seasons  of  the  year  in  Palestine  .  288 

Character  of  the  winter  .    .    .  289 

Of  summer   292 

Seijar,  castle  and  bridge  on  the 
Orontes,  probable  ancient  La- 

rissa   353 

Seir,  Mount   36 

Semak,  Wady,  east  of  Lake  Tibe- 
rias   85 

Semmam,  fountains  of  .    .    .    .  261 

Semar,  village,  ancient  Simyra  .  358 

Senir,  name  for  Hermon    .    .    .  347 

Sepphoris,  town  of   22 

Fountain  of   244 

Sha'ab,  Wady,  east  of  'Akka    .  105 


INDEX. 


397 


Sha'ib,  Wady   87 

Slia'ir,  Wady,  course  of   .    .    .  108 

Shalem,  now  Salim   137 

Shamir  .    .    .  35 

Sharon,  plain  of   126 

Shaveh,  valley  of   101 

Shechem.    See  Nabulus. 
Sheri'at  el-Mandhur,  the  Yarmuk 

branch  of  Jordan   158 

Sheri'ah,  Wady,  also  V/'ady  es- 

Seba   119 

Shibboleth   167 

Shihor  Libnath,  now  Nahr  ez- 

Zerka   192 

Shittim,  or  Abel  Shittim,  valley 

of   83 

Shugr  on  the  Orontes    ....  353 

Shuuem,  now  Solam    .    .    .27,  245 

Shukif,  castle  of   357 

Siddim,  vale  of   234 

Sideh,  Wady   174 

Siloam,  waters  of .    .    .    98,  100,284 

Simsim,  village   118 

Sinjil  •    .    .  Ill 

Sirocco,  wind,  description  of  .    .  305 

In  Syria   371 

Soba,  village   46 

Socoh,  town,  now  Shuweikeh  .  117 
Sodom,  destruction  of  .    .    .  233-235 

Apples  of  Sodom     .    .    .  236,  237 

Solomon's  Pools,  description  of  .  281 

Aqueduct  from   285 

Sorek,  valley  of   116 


Snow,  at  J<  rusalem  and  Palestine  290 
Sudeir,  Wady  and  fountain  .  .  257 
Saf,  fountain  in  Jebel  'Ajlun  .  .261 

Suklmin  106 

Sukkariveh,  village  on  road  to 

Gaza  269 

Suk  Khirbet,  ruins  near  es-Salt  .  262 

Suleiman,  Wady  112 

Stdkhad,  ancient  Sulchah  .     174,  321 

Summeil,  well  at  269 

Sumt,  Wadyes  116 

Siinamein,  village  173 

Sar,  Wady  117 

Surar,  Wady  47,  114 

Sur  Bahil,  fountain  242 

38 


I  Suweimeh,  fountain  at  Dead  Sea  259 
j  Syria,  length  and  breadth  of  .    .  334 
Divisions  of  its  extent   ...  335 
Waters,  climate,  and  seasons  .  366 

Diseases  371 

Geological  features  ....  372 
Mineral  productions  ....  376 
Soil,  trees,  fruit,  productions, 

botany   376-381 

Fauna,  birds,  fish  .    .    .    .  381-383 

T. 

Tabighah,  fountain  of  .  .  .  201,  251 
Tabor,  Mount,  description  of  .    .  23 

View  from  24,  25 

Not  the  Mount  of  Transfigura- 
tion  26 

Cisterns  of  276 

Takeh,  lake  of,  on  the  Orontes   .  353 

Tarichoea,  region  of  156 

Teffuh,  scriptural  Teffuah .  .  .  118 
Teim,  Wady  et,  description  of   .  348 

Teis,  'Ain  et,  262 

Tekoa,  fountain  of  242 

Tell  Abu  Nida,  hill  and  crater  in 

I     Jaulun    .  318 

Tell  Abu  Tumeis,  in  Haun^m  .  55 
Tell  Amara,  in  the  Lejah  ...  321 
Tell  Ash'areh  in  Haurcin,  and 

fountain  261 

Tell  el-Bedawiyeh  131 

Tell  Dilly,  in  Ilaurun  ....  173 
Tell  Dukweh,  east  of  Hauriin  .  322 
Tell  el-Faras,  in  Jaulan  .  .  54,  318 
Tell  el-Haiyeh     ....  315,316 

Tell  Hazur  22 

Tell  Hiim,  on  lake  of  Tiberias, 

not  Capernaum  252 

Tell  el-K&dy,  or  Dan,  source  of 

the  Jordan  at  .  .  .  75,  148,  316 
Tell  Kurddny,  near  'Akka  .    187,  243 

Tell  es-Safieh  118 

Tell  Serraya  1 73 

Tell  Shakhal  174 

Tell  Sumeid,  in  the  Lejah     .  .321 

Tell  Zakariya  117 

Temperature,  of  Palestine     .    .  295 

Of  Jerusalem  ....     296,  297 


398 


INDEX. 


Of  the  western  plain  ....  298 

Of  the  Jordan  valley     .    •    .  298 

Of  the  eastern  hill-country  .    .  300 

Terab,  'Ain  et,  in  Jebcl  'Ajliln   .  261 

Terkftmieh,  village   118 

Tesil,  village  in  IlaurAn    .    .    .  174 

Tiberias,  lake  of,  description  .    .  199 

Below  the  Mediterranean    .    .  200 

Eish   205 

Scenery    .  201-202 

Storms  on   202 

Historical  notices  of  ...    .  203 

Crossed  four  times  by  Christ  .  203 

Fisheries  of   204 

Hot  springs  of   205,  206 

Tibnin,  castle,  fountain  near  .  .  244 
Timnath  Serah    .    .    .    .    .  36,41 

Now  Tibneh   Ill 

Tophet   100 

Trachonitis,  or  district  of  the  two 

Trachones   323 

Transfiguration,   Mount    of,  in 

neighborhood  of  Banias     .    .  26 

Trees  of  Syria   377 

Tripoli,  situation  of  .    .    .    .    .  349 

Tu'ran,  plain  of   130 

Turmus  Aya,  plain  of  .  .  .  .  Ill 
Tyre,  Ladder  of,  or  Scala  Tyrio- 

rum   21 

Plain  of   125 

Tyropoeon,  valley  of    ...    .  98 

U. 

Urtas,  fountain  of   242 

Um  el-Fahm   33 

TJra  Keis,  ancient  Gadara  .    .    .  175 

Urn  esh-Shukaf,  fountain  of  .  .  243 
TJsdura,   Khasm,  Mount  of,  at 

Dead  Sea   51 

V. 

Valley,  term  used  in  English  for 

four  different  Hebrew  words  70-72 
Valley  of  Achor ;   of  Keziz  ; 

plain  of  Moab   82 

Valley  of  the  Passengers,  or 

Haman  Gog   86 


Of  Shaveh,  and  of  Jehosha- 

phat   102 

Valley  of  vision   103 

Valley  of  Craftsmen  .    .    .    .  113 

Of  Gibeon   115 

Of  Eephaim   116 

Of  Elah   117 

The  great  valley  of  Syria  from 

Cilicia  to  the  Red  Sea    .    .  333 

Volcanic  districts  of  Palestine  .  314 

Extinct  craters   317 

Districts  east  of  the  Jordan  318,  325 

W. 

Wdleh,  river,  branch  of  the  Arnon  180 

Warm  and  saline  springs    .    .    .  263 

Welejeh,  village   115 

Wells,  a  feature  of  Palestine   265,  270 

Mode  of  drawing  water  from  .  271 

Werd,  Wady  el,  near  Jerusalem  1 1 5 

Winds  of  the  rainy  season     .    .  303 

Of  summer   304 

The  Sirocco   305 

Winter,  or  rainy  season  of  Pales- 
tine   289 

Y. 

Yabis,  Wady,  ancient  Jabesh  Gil- 
cad   59,  86 

Ya'biid,  village  107,  135 

Yarmuk,  river,  branch  of  the  Jor- 
dan, now  Sheri'atel-Mandhilr  57,  158 

Sources  of    173 

YarCld,  fountain  of   263 

Yuhmur,  village  on  the  Lit&ny  .  356 

Z. 

Za'areh,  Wady  el,  stream  of  .    .  146 

Zalmon,  Mount   40 

ZcbedAny,  village   363 

Zeboim,  town  of   96 

Zebulun,  plain  of,  now  el-Buttauf  22 

Northern  boundary  of    .    •    .  106 

Zeidy,  Wady  el   174 

Zemaraim,  Mount   41 

Zephathah,  valley  of  .  .  .  .  118 
Zerka,  Crocodile  river,  near  Caes- 

area   191 


ESTDEX. 


399 


Ziklag,  town  of  122 

Zin,  desert  of  16 

Ziph,  now  Tell  Zif,  cisterns  at   .  274 

Zoar,  site  of  233 

Zorah,  village  23,114 


Fountain  of  244 

Zurka,  ancient  Jabbok  ....  .')7 
Zurka  Ma'hi,  stream  of,  east  of 

Dead  Sea  61,  88,  178 

Zuwinah,  Wady  .    .    -    .    .  .314 


I 

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